[Objective] As urban design faces increasing demands for contextual responsiveness, iterative optimization, and data-informed reasoning, integrating artificial intelligence into the design process has gained renewed relevance. Among emerging technologies, generative artificial intelligence (GAI) shows strong potential for automating content creation and simulating spatial configurations. This research provides a comprehensive review of recent developments in the application of GAI to urban design. The research identifies representative technical pathways, their respective intervention stages, and the functional mechanisms by which generative models are reshaping the design workflow. This research presents a structured, theory-informed synthesis of how different generative models contribute to tasks such as intention modeling, spatial reasoning, and performance-driven design. Building on design thinking and a descriptive lens informed by the technology acceptance model (TAM), the research examines how model type, data modality, and task characteristics affect GAI’s functional role, usability, and acceptance. Particular attention is given to mapping deployment forms, from isolated tools to coordinated multi-model workflows, and to characterizing cross-cutting challenges of controllability, transparency, and contextual adaptability in urban design settings.
[Methods] Following the PRISMA protocol, the research conducts a multi-stage literature review combining automated search and expert screening. A total of 125 peer-reviewed articles and high-impact preprints are selected from Web of Science, CNKI, arXiv, and selected industry sources, covering the period from 2014 to July 2025. Search terms such as “generative AI”, “AIGC”, “GAN”, “diffusion model”, “variational autoencoder”, “autoregressive model”, “large language model”, and urban-related keywords are used in various combinations. Based on the collected literature, four types of generative models are summarized as image-driven, language-driven, structure-driven, and feedback-optimized models, according to their application characteristics in urban design tasks. These types are aligned with four stages of the design process: preliminary analysis, scheme generation, evaluation and decision-making, and outcome expression. On this basis, a two-dimensional framework to examine how different GAI pathways intervene across tasks is formed. To refine the mapping, each design stage is further broken down into three representative sub-tasks. Preliminary analysis includes public demand analysis, urban data enhancement, case/task framing, and spatial element recognition. Scheme generation covers design intention modeling, spatial layout generation, and 3D form construction. The evaluation and decision-making stage includes multi-objective optimization, scheme evaluation, and scenario prediction. The final expression stage involves textual documentation, 2D representation, and visual rendering. A quantitative analysis is also conducted to show the distribution of model types over design stages, identify common combinations, and trace the evolution of research focus over time. TAM informs a descriptive synthesis of perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEU) across model types to illuminate adoption patterns.
[Results] The findings reveal that GAI models are increasingly integrated into urban design workflows but exhibit uneven adoption across task types and modalities. Image-driven models dominate in both early-stage analysis and final visual representation due to their high interpretability, usability, and compatibility with existing design practices. Language-driven models are commonly used in public demand analysis, participatory planning, and scenario scripting, enabled by the rise of large language models (LLMs) such as ChatGPT and DeepSeek. Structure-driven models, though less prevalent, show promise in generating street networks, land-parcel layouts, and spatial typologies using graph-based logic. Feedback-optimized models, which rely on reinforcement learning, evolutionary algorithms, and performance simulation are the least adopted, but demonstrate strong potential in multi-objective optimization and iterative decision-making. Recent research indicates an increasing use of multi-model workflows, such as text-to-image pipelines integrated with urban simulation or feedback loops. While GAI applications increasingly support design iteration, their adoption is heavily influenced by the controllability, explainability, and contextual adaptability of models. PU and PEU vary significantly by model type, with image-driven models rated highest and structure-driven and feedback-optimized models facing usability challenges due to complexity and low transparency.
[Conclusion] Although GAI has demonstrated broad applicability across the urban design process, current implementations are largely procedural and auxiliary in nature. Most models recombine existing inputs rather than construct original logic, and few possess autonomous reasoning or normative awareness. This limits their role to content augmentation rather than conceptual guidance in design development. Moreover, issues such as opaque decision logic, lack of domain-specific knowledge embedding, and poor adaptability to local planning norms hinder practical adoption. Addressing these challenges requires multi-level efforts: 1) Construct structured, regionally grounded urban design datasets; 2) improve model interpretability, controllability, and responsiveness to professional input; and 3) develop modular, multi-model systems that support seamless interaction across design stages. Human – AI collaboration mechanisms — especially those based on iterative prompts and semantic feedback-must be enhanced to enable AI not just as a tool, but as an active design partner. This review offers a comprehensive reference for scholars and practitioners seeking to understand how GAI is reshaping the logic, structure, and agency of urban design.

[Objective] The Nanjiang Ancient Waterway is a uniquely distinctive ancient waterway among the ancient post roads in southern Guangdong, with settlements along it flourishing in history. Although the scale and prosperity of individual settlements are not comparable to those in other parts of Lingnan, under the influence of multicultural integration, the value of the multicultural landscape characteristics presented by these settlements is prominent. Exploring the landscape characteristics of settlements along the Nanjiang Ancient Waterway and influencing factors thereof from the macro perspective of “cultural routes” can break through the limitations of the point-like research model of “studying individual villages in isolation” and help tap the multi-dimensional value of settlements.

[Methods] The cultural routes focus on integrity and emphasizes the cognition of cultural phenomena through dynamic and historical functions, which provides a holistic research perspective for the research on settlement landscape along the Nanjiang Ancient Waterway. Therefore, based on the theoretical framework of “human – land – property” of cultural geography in combination with field investigation and GIS spatial analysis, 65 traditional settlements along the Nanjiang Ancient Waterway are selected as the research object by typology analysis method from the three functional dimensions of human settlement, commerce and culture of cultural routes, and the landscape characteristics of settlements along the ancient waterway and the influencing factors thereof are analyzed.

[Results] 1) As an important traffic foundation for the formation and development of settlements, ancient waterway have a significant impact on the differentiation of landscape types. The settlement landscape along Nanjiang Ancient Waterway can be divided into three categories: Human settlement landscape, commercial landscape and cultural landscape, with different spatial distribution, morphological characteristics and cultural characteristics. The settlements along the Nanjiang Ancient Waterway present characteristics of “being rich in layers, mountains and waters embracing each other”, “adapting to the terrain and following the natural flow of wind and water”, and “a crisscross network of canals with dikes and dams encircling”. 2) The commercial function of the Nanjiang Ancient Waterway and the formation of the commercial landscape of settlements have a mutually promoting relationship, forming commercial landscape characteristics of “interconnecting land and water routes, with ferries and crossings interwoven”, and “setting up fairs by the water, and forming markets along streets”. 3) During Ming and Qing dynasties, the “policy of recruiting people to settle and be registered” spurred a large number of immigrants to move in along the Nanjiang Ancient Waterway, and establish clans and set up villages there. The mutual exchange of immigrant cultures gave rise to cultural landscapes featuring “separation of residences and ancestral halls with mixed styles” and “pantheistic worship, and water-based landscape creation”. In Ming and Qing dynasties, the Ming government encouraged people to migrate there, and the policy of granting household registration prompted a large number of immigrants to move in along the Nanjiang Ancient Waterway, and establish clans and set up villages there. This led to the formation of diversified and mixed-style landscapes of residences and ancestral halls as well as religious cultural landscapes, boasting unique regional cultural characteristics of Nanjiang.

[Conclusion] The settlements along the Nanjiang Ancient Waterway, are the spatial carriers of human settlement landscape, commerce, culture and other functions. The population base provided by the immigration policy is the starting point of settlement development. As a key factor, immigration policy provides the necessary population base for the formation of settlements along the ancient waterway, and is the starting point of settlement development. The distribution and rise of immigrant settlements along the Nanjiang Ancient Waterway, benefited from the efficient water transportation system constructed by the ancient waterway network, and the flourishing commercial development of settlements along the ancient Waterway. The mutual fostering between population mobility and trade greatly promotes the exchange and integration of immigrant culture, giving birth to Nanjiang regional cultural landscape. Revealing the landscape characteristics of settlements along the cultural routes and the influencing factors thereof from the perspective of integrity and dynamics can provide a basis for the overall protection of settlements along the Nanjiang Ancient Waterway. Under the background of rapid urbanization, the protection of settlement landscape along the Nanjiang Ancient Waterway has encountered severe challenges such as the decline of traditional features and the imbalance of development. In the reconstruction of settlement landscape, we should adhere to the principles of integrity, dynamics and sustainability of cultural route protection, integrate natural and human landscape resources, and rationally activate and utilize settlement landscape. The researches advocates to well protect the Nanjiang Ancient Waterway through the chain of beads, the implementation of zoning – subsection – grading differentiation development, the establishment of the overall spatial control system for the protection of settlements along the Nanjiang Ancient Waterway, the construction of cultural routes for the integration of ecology, culture and industry, the creation of nostalgic settlement memory scene, and the promotion of the revitalization and development of settlements.

[Objective] Rapid urbanization has prioritized functional and efficient architectural and urban space design, often at the expense of human-centered spatial experience. As China’s urbanization shifts toward optimizing existing spaces, the focus of public space design is evolving to emphasize ambiance and user experience. Evidence-based design, rooted in the “human – space – experience” relationship, has become essential for understanding how people perceive and engage with spaces, offering a foundation for creating more humanized environments. Cognition of built environments, including urban spaces and landscapes, relies on dynamic visual exploration rather than static observation. Visual information, continuously changing during movement, plays a critical role in spatial cognition and environmental experience. Dynamic perception enables a more comprehensive understanding of spaces, making it vital for improving design quality and user satisfaction. Emerging technologies such as panoramic imaging, virtual reality (VR), and wearable sensors provide new opportunities to quantify visual information, simulate dynamic perception, and evaluate subjective experience. These advancements have made the dynamic visual perception in urban public spaces a key research focus. This research reviews the methods for analyzing environmental visual information and dynamic perception. By integrating objective physical environment analysis with subjective perception evaluation, the research proposes a unified framework to explore the mechanisms linking built environments with spatial cognition, and predicts future research directions. [Methods] This research employs a comprehensive review methodology to examine the mechanisms of dynamic visual perception in urban public spaces. By integrating insights from environmental psychology, urban design, and visual perception studies, the research systematically explores both objective and subjective dimensions of spatial cognition. For the analysis of objective physical environments, the research reviews advancements in panoramic imaging, skyline and greenery visibility assessments, and dynamic visual metrics such as optical flow and motion parallax. These methods are evaluated based on their accuracy, computational efficiency, and applicability to real-world environments. In terms of subjective visual perception, the research reviews the methods for simulating dynamic experience through VR, including immersive navigation, motion tracking, and behavior re-creation. This review highlights approach for designing realistic visual experience and capturing human responses to dynamic environments. Additionally, techniques for quantifying subjective perceptions are explored. These include real-time emotion evaluation using wearable sensors, physiological measurements, and machine learning models for multimodal data analysis. Challenges such as data annotation, contextual dependency, and ethical considerations are critically examined to address the complexity of perception assessment. By synthesizing the aforesaid methods, the research establishes a structured framework that supports the evaluation and simulation of dynamic visual perception in built environments, providing a robust foundation for future research and practical applications. [Results] Environmental visual information analysis methods: Panoramic imaging has been shown to offer significant advantages in environmental visual information analysis, enabling comprehensive capture of 360° three-dimensional environmental data centered around the human viewpoint. This method provides a more accurate and reliable representation of the “viewpoint – environment” relationship, overcoming limitations such as shooting angle and lens distortion. Current research primarily focuses on static visual information, such as greenery visibility and sky visibility, using street view data or panoramic images. The primary research trends include improving the accuracy of visual element recognition and enhancing the ability to recognize specific scene elements. While pedestrian trajectory tracking and space syntax-based visual fields are well-developed in dynamic visual information, there is still a gap in the quantification and visualization of motion-induced visual cues, such as optical flow and motion parallax. Motion perception simulation technology: Studies indicate a clear difference in the motion perception results between sequences of images and films. Sequential images fail to effectively convey dynamic visual cues, making them inadequate for simulating motion perception. VR environments, combined with omnidirectional treadmills and handheld controllers, provide more accurate motion simulation by allowing users to simulate physical movements and choose walking paths freely and replicating real-world tour behaviors. Subjective perception quantification methods: Wearable sensors, capable of forming millisecond-level physiological responses to environmental stimuli, have become an effective tool in evaluating subjective environmental experience. However, the challenge remains in using physiological data to precisely identify emotions and understand the dynamic process of perception. Adding sequential descriptive sensors to traditional measurement methods can enhance the accuracy of subjective perception evaluation. Despite the promising applications of machine learning in subjective perception research, challenges such as data annotation difficulties, context dependence, and privacy concerns still persist. [Conclusion] The research demonstrates the advantages of using panoramic images in capturing comprehensive visual information in both static and dynamic environments, offering a more accurate representation of spatial relationships and overcoming traditional limitations. However, there is a need for further development in the quantification and visualization of dynamic visual cues, such as motion parallax and optical flow, as well as in the real-time analysis of dynamic visual information using machine learning. Motion perception simulation methods have highlighted the limitations of traditional sequential images and emphasized the benefits of virtual reality environments for more accurate and immersive experience. Additionally, wearable sensors provide an effective method for quantifying subjective perception, though challenges related to data annotation, context dependence, and privacy must be addressed. Future research directions include improving multimodal fusion techniques, developing personalized perception models, and enhancing the interpretability and transparency of machine learning models, all while ensuring privacy protection.

[Objective] With the financial support of the government, the area of park green space has increased significantly. On the one hand, the construction and maintenance of large park green spaces require a large amount of continuous investment; on the other hand, the current urbanization development in China has shifted from incremental construction to stock renewal, which requires the improvement of the quality and efficiency of park green spaces and the enhancement of their service functions. Through relatively thorough operation, Beijing Wenyu River Park has not only maintained the quality of the park’s green space and improved the quality of park services, but also alleviated the financial pressure on the management and maintenance of the park’s green space, becoming a model of park operation in Beijing. Analyzing its experience in socialized operation of parks based on “nurturing parks with parks” is of great reference significance for exploring the improvement of quality and efficiency of urban parks. [Methods] The Chaoyang section of Wenyu River Park in Beijing is selected as the research object, and a case study method combining field investigation, questionnaire survey and in-depth interview is adopted. This research sorts out the current operation content and operation status of Wenyu River Park through field investigation, and obtains its operation experience through in-depth interviews with the person in charge of the Chaoyang section of Wenyu River Park. In addition, through questionnaire survey, the research obtains the basic situation of the park’s visitors, such as the age of the respondents, the type of their companions, as well as their educational level, income and other characteristics. Before the implementationn of in-depth interviews, an interview outline is drafted simultaneously by combining academic papers, media reports, planning documents and other materials. The interview statement and the outline of the interview content are provided to the interviewees in advance, and the interviews are conducted offline, with a duration of approximately 1.5 hours. [Results] Through in-depth interviews, the research learns about the experience and details of Wenyu River Park in its practice of socialized operation. The socialized operation practice of Wenyu River Park generally presents the following characteristics: Diversified operation entities, professional operation contents, market-oriented operation mechanisms, and in-depth community participation. Through the questionnaire survey, the basic characteristics of the respondents in Wenyu River Park are obtained. The visitors to Wenyu River Park generally show the characteristics of being young, family-oriented, highly educated and high-income, and have a strong demand for parent – child family activities. [Conclusion] As a representative case of socialized operation of urban parks, Wenyu River Park takes state-owned enterprises as the operation and management platform, private enterprises as the cell-level content, and government agencies as the supervision and assistance mechanism, forming a multi-subject operation model. Under the premise of ensuring the provision of public welfare services, the park has brought market innovation and vitality into its operation. The professional operation entity has established a precise positioning for the park and constructed a high-quality service content matrix. The market-oriented operation mechanism ensures that the operation projects obtain reasonable returns in a market-oriented manner and balances the cost expenditure of the park. The in-depth community participation mechanism has encouraged residents to deeply engage in the development of the park and promoted social integration. The operation practice exploration of Wenyu River Park shows that the socialized operation of urban parks can effectively improve the service level of park green spaces and improve the comprehensive social benefits of the park industry, while alleviating the financial pressure of local governments to a certain extent. Meanwhile, the profits from park service projects can reduce financial expenditures to a certain extent, although to a limited extent — as can be seen from the publicly available financial data, Wenyu River Park is still receiving financial subsidies from the government. Of course, from the practical experience at home and abroad, even if the income from the socialized operation of parks cannot fully offset the government’s investment, it can still effectively reduce the government]s financial burden. At present, the socialized operation of urban parks in China is still in the exploratory stage. In the practice of Wenyu River Park, issues such as the balance between public welfare services and revenue services, the balance between ecological protection and economic revenue generation, the lagging policy and legal system, the lack of operational incentive mechanisms, the insufficiency of administrative management coordination mechanisms, the limitations of operational space and sustainability, and the shortage of park operation and management talents, urgently require the joint exploration of solutions by the whole society.

[Objective] Against the escalating global climate crisis and intensifying resource constraints, this research aims to elucidate the theoretical framework and practical pathways for achieving green and low-carbon development within the context of Chengdu’s pioneering Park City initiative. Recognizing China’s critical shift from high-speed growth to high-quality development, where green transformation is the essential solution to resource and environmental constraints and the sole pathway to sustainable development (as emphasized in the Report to 20th CPC National Congress), the research positions cities — especially mega-cities like Chengdu — as the focal and most challenging arenas for this comprehensive socio-economic green transition. Building on President Xi Jinping’s concept of “Park City” first proposed in 2018 and Chengdu’s subsequent designation as a National Park City Demonstration Zone in 2022, the research investigates how Chengdu operationalizes Xi Jinping’s thought on ecological civilization at the urban scale. The core objective is to analyze Chengdu’s integrated approach, encapsulated in its “four-dimensional mutually reinforcing transition model” (spatial remodeling, industrial upgrading, transportation optimization, and energy innovation) and “triadic synergistic core mechanism” (ecological value realization, talent attraction activation, institutional safeguard upgrading), to overcome the historical legacy of extensive, inefficient urban development characterized by ecological space compression, industrial stagnation, transportation congestion, and soaring energy consumption. Ultimately, the research seeks to extract transferable insights and a replicable theoretical – practical framework for green and low-carbon transformation in other mega and large cities globally.

[Methods/process] Employing a mixed-methods approach, this research combines theoretical frameworks with empirical validation. 1) Policy synthesis & institutional analysis: The research examines Chengdu’s regulatory ecosystem, including the Policies on Green and Low-Carbon Development of Key Industries, the Guidelines on Near-Zero-Carbon Pilot Communities, and cross-departmental governance structures. 2) Case-based grounded theory: The research conducts longitudinal monitoring (2020–2025) of 29 near-zero-carbon pilot communities (e.g., Changshouyuan Community, Xinqiao Community), documenting interventions like district photovoltaic (PV) systems, low-carbon mobility retrofits, and circular economy projects. The research adopts a comprehensive case study methodology, deeply analyzing Chengdu’s systematic implementation of its Park City strategy since the issuance of the pivotal Decision of the CPC Chengdu Municipal Committee on Promoting Urban Green and Low-Carbon Development by Optimizing Spatial, Industrial, Transportation, and Energy Structures to Achieve Carbon Peaking and Carbon Neutrality Goals. This research forms a closed loop of green and low-carbon development, namely spatial foundation building – industrial decarbonization – transportation emission control – energy substitution, and accordingly summarizes its four-dimensional mutually reinforcing transition model as follows. 1) Spatial remodeling focuses on restructuring the coupled relationship of production – living – ecological spaces (PLE). At the macro-scale, numerous eco-friendly measures are implemented, such as protecting green ecological spaces and enabling the organic integration of natural landscapes with urban areas. At the micro-layout level, active promotion of industry – city integration has fostered intensive, efficient, green, and healthy urban operations. 2) Industrial upgrading is committed to synergizing “ecological industrialization” and “industrial ecologization”. On one hand, it abandons the “pollute first, treat later” model, vigorously developing green industries like energy conservation, environmental protection, and ecotourism. On the other hand, it drives the transformation and upgrading of traditional industries. 3) Transportation optimization at the systemic level is integrated within the comprehensive transportation system to enhance the convenience of green mobility. At the infrastructure level, the functionality and quality of slow-mobility scenes like greenways are improved to guide citizens towards choosing low-carbon travel modes (walking, cycling, etc.), thereby reducing transportation carbon emissions from the demand side. 4) Energy innovation addresses both the supply side, by building a multi-source complementary clean energy system to reduce reliance on traditional fossil fuels, and the consumption side, by bringing community-based energy conservation and low-carbon transition closer to citizens’ life, fostering a green transformation atmosphere with public participation.

[Results/conclusion] Chengdu’s integrated approach — spatially compact development, industrial symbiosis, electrified multimodal transportation, and distributed renewables — demonstrates a viable blueprint for mega-city decarbonization. Research results are mainly summarized as follows. 1) Systemic synergy is critical. Fragmented interventions (e.g., isolated renewable projects) yield suboptimal results, while spatial – energy – transportation – industrial coordination unlocks compound benefits. Institutional innovation drives transition. Polycentric governance (blending top-down targets with community participation) and mission-oriented finance de-risk green investments. The Chengdu model proves replicable in peer cities facing similar growth – climate dilemmas. 2) People-centered design ensures sustainability. Embedding co-benefits — cost savings (Xinqiao), health improvements (reducing PM_2.5 by 22%), and circular lifestyles — builds public buy-in, turning climate action into a “new normal”. The results validate that Park City construction, as a concrete manifestation of green and low-carbon development guided by Xi Jinping’s thought on ecological civilization, effectively reconciles economic growth with environmental protection. It achieves a harmonious integration of park morphology and urban space, balancing ecology, lifestyle, and production, and realizing the symbiotic coexistence of humans and nature within an urban setting. Chengdu’s experience highlights that successful transformation requires systematic integration across space, industry, transportation, and energy, underpinned by innovative mechanisms for value realization, talent attraction, and institutional guarantee. This integrated approach facilitates a fundamental shift from extensive expansion to connotative development. As green and low-carbon development is a long-term endeavor, sustained efforts are crucial. Chengdu’s case, particularly as a mega-city model, offers valuable “Chinese Wisdom” and a practical “Chinese Solution” for global urban sustainability, providing a replicable reference for cities worldwide seeking to tailor similar transformations based on their unique resource endowments and developmental stages.

[Objective] This research aims to explore the systematic application pathway of the theory of scenes in the construction of Beijing Garden City. Addressing current deficiencies in Beijing’s green space development, such as insufficient integration of greenery perception and function, lack of distinctive character, low ecological efficiency of urban spaces, and inadequate scene operation capabilities, the research constructs a human-oriented garden scene construction framework for Beijing, grounded in the theory of scenes and oriented towards planning practice. The core objectives are to facilitate the transformation of Beijing’s urban spaces from a singular “garden landscape” model, primarily focusing on parks and green spaces, towards a comprehensive “garden scene” model that covers the entire urban area and integrates diverse functions. This transformation seeks to enhance citizens’ sense of well-being and belonging, ultimately achieving the high-quality development goal of harmonious coexistence between humans and nature.

[Methods] The research employs an interdisciplinary approach, integrating knowledge from such disciplines as environmental psychology, sociology, ecology, urban planning, and landscape architecture. The theory of scenes is utilized to analyze the spatial form and functional development of the Garden City. Firstly, the conceptual framework of the theory of scenes, including its subjective and objective elements and their interrelationships, is systematically reviewed, and its semantic expressions are localized for the Chinese context. A literature review is conducted on the theory’s application and research in Garden City construction, with a focus on the following three key directions: Emphasizing subjective dimension value analysis, addressing both the overall requirements of garden scenes and the differentiated needs of specific scene types, and highlighting the synergistic role of green spaces in landscape character, social interaction, and ecological performance. Questionnaire surveys are used to decipher Beijing citizens’ subjective value orientations towards garden scenes. The Beijing’s Garden Scene vision system is explored through the lenses of authenticity, expressiveness, and belongingness. Applying the objective elements of Scene Theory to establish a research process: “Characterizing Spatial Contexts — Identifying User Demands — Developing Amenity Systems — Integrating Activities across Developmental Stages”. This framework technically translates the garden scene vision, detailing the construction elements, characteristics, and directions for eight types of garden scenes. Finally, the theory of scenes framework and survey findings are innovatively synthesized into a tripartite planning practice system comprising “design guidelines — implementation pathways — policy support”, forming the core of the Beijing's Garden Scene planning and design guidance system.

[Results] The research yields the following key outcomes: 1) Value System Construction: Through the localized translation of the theory of scenes’s subjective dimensions and aligning them with Beijing’s capital character, “Beijing flavor” culture, and North China regional characteristics, the core value vision of “Lush & Healthy, Diverse & Shared, Unique & Beautiful” for Beijing’s Garden Scenes is proposed. 2) Amenity Module Innovation: Based on the objective elements of the theory of scenes, an amenity framework featuring 17 distinct modules is innovatively constructed, involving canopy coverage, microclimate regulation, boundary integration, and therapeutic landscapes, etc. This system provides universal technical strategies for creating ecological, human-centered, and distinctive spaces. 3) Differentiated Strategies for Scene Types: Tailored core construction strategies and planning pathways are formulated, closely integrating the spatial background characteristics, green space development features, and human demand models of Beijing’s eight garden scene types. These strategies integrate design guideline principles with specific scene requirements and embed them within existing initiatives like urban renewal. 4) Implementation and Policy System: Recognizing the spatio-temporal evolution characteristics of scenes (progressing through Environmental Improvement → Functional Implantation → Catalyst Activation stages), the research explores an eight-faceted policy framework covering aspects like optimized green space metrics, landscape replacement policies, adaptable green space controls, etc. These policies ensure the effective translation of planning concepts into implementation and management controls.

[Conclusion] Garden scene construction represents the refined implementation and effective operationalization of the planning concept of Beijing Garden City at the urban spatial level. The process of scene building translates the macro concept of human-nature symbiosis into tangible, perceptible, and enjoyable micro-spatial experiences within citizens’ daily life. The research constructs a garden scene construction pathway framework for Beijing guided by the theory of scenes, led by core values, grounded in amenity modules, characterized by scene-specific strategies, and secured by implementation policies. This framework effectively addresses the current challenges of integrating function, ecology, and culture in green space development. It provides significant theoretical support and a practical paradigm for achieving high-quality, sustainable development of megacities like Beijing.

[Objective] The mid-16th century is a critical period in the transformation of Jiangnan gardens during the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty. This period is characterized by a gradual weakening of the connection between garden making and agricultural economy, the enhancement of social functions of private gardens, and the infiltration of social atmosphere of entertainment and extravagance into the life of literati. Based on clarifying the overall trend of the transformation of Jiangnan gardens, it is necessary to further explore specific changes in garden elements such as rockeries, waterscape, plants, and buildings by combining them with specific examples. The private garden of Xu Feng, a wealthy merchant from Suzhou, is representative of the newly constructed Jiangnan gardens in the mid-16th century. The scenery of this garden is depicted in Wen Zhengming’s Picture of a Famous Garden in Jinchang (“Jinchangmingyuantu”). This painting vividly reflects many garden design techniques that were popular during the Jiajing period and provides intuitive evidence to support the argument of the transformation of Jiangnan gardens in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty. It also helps to form a clearer understanding of the typical artistic features of Jiangnan gardens in the mid-16th century. [Methods] The research method of mutual verification of literature and image is employed to reconstruct the garden depicted in the Picture of a Famous Garden in Jinchang. Combining visual and textual information to identify the correspondence between the painting and the Record of Zizhi Garden (Zizhiyuanji), in order to determine the orientation of buildings and the layout of garden. This process ultimately yields a partial plan of Xu Feng’s Garden, making the visual image of this renowned Jiangnan garden in the mid-16th century more intuitive. Furthermore, by analyzing the garden elements and design techniques based on the plan restoration of Xu Feng’s Garden, and comparing it with other Jiangnan gardens in the mid-16th century and its surrounding periods, the main trends in the transformation of Jiangnan gardens since the Jiajing period can be explored. [Results] The Picture of a Famous Garden in Jinchang does not include the panorama of Xu Feng’s Garden, and Wen Zhengming chose to depict the core area of the garden. This painting depicts scenic spots such as the garden gate, Five Old Men Peaks (“Wulaofeng”), teahouse, Wohong Bridge (Wohongqiao), square pool, Dongya Hall (“Dongyatang”), Taiyi Study (“Taiyizhai”), curving stream, Qianxin Railing (“Qianxinjian”), Baixue Tower (“Baixuelou”), and Qingxiang Pavilion (“Qingxiangting”) from right to left. This garden was renowned for its luxurious style and served as a place for celebrities to engage in social activities. The garden elements such as rockeries, waterscape, plants, and buildings exhibit artistic features that are distinct from the traditional literati gardens before the mid-16th century, while also showing continuity with the design techniques from the mid-16th century to the early 17th century. The Five Old Men Peaks, which rose during the Jiajing period, continued to be popular until the late Ming Dynasty. Ornamental plants detached from agricultural economy reflected the changes in the livelihood of garden owners from farming to commerce. Buildings with increasing number and diverse forms were gradually replacing plants as the main scene of gardens. In addition, this painting shows the combination of square pool and curving stream, providing valuable visual documentation for distinguishing the differences in waterscape design during the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty. [Conclusion] The comparison of Xu Feng’s Garden with other Jiangnan gardens in the mid-16th century and its surrounding periods reveals the major trends in the transformation of garden making since the Jiajing period. The application of standardized techniques in rockery construction and waterscape design reflects the gradual maturation of garden making after the mid-16th century, indicating that garden designers had gradually established a widely recognized and used design paradigm after long-term exploration. As a representative of the design paradigm at that time, the combination of the Five Old Men Peaks and square pool reveals the convergence of garden designers’ aesthetic concepts within a specific historical period. The functional shift of plants and buildings can be seen as a manifestation of the transformation of social trend from frugality to luxury in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty. In the early 16th century, Jiangnan gardens were primarily used for the daily life and literary gatherings of literati, while also accommodating self-sufficient agricultural production. The development of commodity economy highlighted the social attributes of gardens as venues for social interaction, stimulating garden owners’ attention to the aesthetic functions of their gardens. The transformation of Jiangnan gardens in the mid-16th century originats from the combined effects of social evolution and artistic development. In subsequent research, extending case studies to group surveys can help to macroscopically grasp the characteristics of Jiangnan gardens in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty.

[Objective] This research aims to explore the theory and practice of landscape design for campuses of primary and secondary schools in the context of contemporary high-density Chinese cities. The objective is to establish a comprehensive design framework based on the concept of “playscape” to transform school campuses from single-functional, enclosed educational facilities into vibrant, creative urban spaces that serve as nodes within the public realm. Confronted with challenges such as limited space, a rigid focus on academic performance, and physical and psychological segregation from surrounding communities, traditional campus design has proven inadequate. This research seeks to address these shortcomings by proposing a design philosophy that not only promotes the holistic development of children but also enhances the campus’s role as an open, inclusive, and vital community hub. The research intends to provide inspiring theoretical perspectives and practical pathways for the future innovation of campus landscape design and overall spatial design, grounded in asynthesis of the scientific principles of child development and the poetics of place-making.
[Methods] To achieve this objective, the research employs a multi-faceted methodological approach. First, it conducts a systematic historical review of the concepts of “play” and “playfulness” within the evolution of contemporary cultural, artistic, urban and architectural theories. This review traces the intellectual lineage from Schiller’s and Huizinga’s cultural theories to the critical practices of the Situationist International and Cedric Price, establishing “play” as a profound cultural phenomenon and a powerful tool for critiquing functionalist urbanism. Second, the research constructs an integrative design framework by synthesizing the “science” of child development with the “poetics” of playscape design. It systematically incorporates a five-dimensional design method, largely informed by the scientific findings in child psychology, behavioral science, and neuroscience, covering aspects such as risk assessment, embodied cognition, executive functions, social-emotional support, and benefits of the natural environment. This scientific dimension is interwoven with the poetic dimension, which draws inspiration from the pioneering works of artists and designers like Isamu Noguchi and Aldo van Eyck, focusing on place-making, aesthetic experience, and community engagement. Third, the research empirically illustrates and validates this framework through an in-depth case study of the landscape regeneration project at the Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen Experimental School. This case study analyzes the specific strategies and methods applied to translate the playscape philosophy into a tangible design, particularly examining its adaptability within the constraints of a rapid, low-cost campus regeneration project.
[Results] The research yields several significant findings. The historical review confirms that “play” and “playfulness” have consistently served as a critical counter-narrative to rigid, functionalist approaches to urban design, acting as a vital source of urban vitality and community cohesion. The proposed “science-poetics” integrative framework proves to be a robust and effective tool for addressing the multifaceted challenges of campuses in high-density cities. The scientific dimension provides a clear, evidence-based rationale for design decisions, moving beyond intuition to create environments that precisely support children’s holistic development. The poetic dimension elevates the campus landscape from a mere functional backdrop to a meaningful “playable work of art” that fosters a sense of place and belonging. The case study of Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen Experimental School demonstrates the framework’s practical applicability and adaptability. The findings show that even under significant constraints of time, budget, and space, the core values of the playscape can be effectively realized through “low-intervention, high-perception” strategies. The project successfully transforms a monotonous, single-functional sports ground into a dynamic, interactive playscape. Key results from the case study are summarized as follows. 1) The paradigm shift from a “functionalist” to a “developmentalist” landscape is achieved by creating a flowing topography and integrating natural elements. 2) “Spatial acupuncture”, a strategy of activating interstitial spaces, proves highly effective in maximizing the use of limited land resources. 3) The integration of “color therapy” with micro-topography shaping serves as a low-cost, high-impact method for enhancing spatial perception, guiding activities, and creating a positive emotional atmosphere. 4) The design successfully blurs the physical and psychological boundaries between the campus and the community, enhancing the school’s identity as a public node through strategies like the design of the “Sixth Facade” system. These results collectively demonstrate that the playscape philosophy, when adapted through context-specific, innovative strategies, offers a powerful pathway to overcoming the prevalent challenges in contemporary Chinese campus regeneration.
[Conclusion] This research concludes that “playscape” is an integrative design philosophy that masterfully combines scientific rationality with poetic and humanistic concerns, offering a systematic solution for the design of campuses of primary and secondary schools in high-density cities. The research establishes that a playscape-based approach can fundamentally reshape the campus, facilitating a paradigm shift from a passive, function-oriented environment to an active, educational space that scientifically empowers children’s growth. Furthermore, it serves as a critical catalyst for linking the campus to the city, transforming it from an isolated “island” into an open, creative, and inclusive hub that energizes the community. The “low-intervention, high-perception” strategies explored in this research offer a tangible and adaptable pathway for realizing innovative playscape designs within the common constraints of campus regeneration projects in China. Looking forward, the systematic application of the playscape philosophy to campus design is not merely an effective strategy for tackling current challenges, but also a vital step towards reimagining the school as a place full of creativity, inclusivity, and community vitality, which holds profound significance for nurturing future citizens and building harmonious, livable cities.

[Objective] As an important urban public open space, park green spaces bear multiple social functions such as ecology, recreation, and culture. Park services are evolving from being low-frequency and periodic to high-frequency and all-day, giving rise to the urgent need of the public for high-quality and diversified services. However, as a public welfare product, parks have long relied on government financial investment for operation and maintenance, and this traditional operation and maintenance mode exposes deep-seated contradictions of insufficient sustainability under the dual constraints of the downward economic pressure and the rising maintenance costs. This leads to an increasingly prominent contradiction between public demand and operation management. Therefore, against the backdrop of China’s encouragement of the open sharing of urban park green spaces, it is particularly important in the current economic situation to consider how to make better use of digital technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), and big data (BD) to empower the operation of park green spaces, further revitalize the advantageous resources of parks, promote the transformation of parks from “extensive management” to “precise services”, and enhance the “self-sustaining” function of parks through operation. Thus, this research focuses on the operational mode and implementation path of empowering the operation of urban park green spaces by digital technology, with the aim of providing scientific guidance for the future operation practice of park green spaces. [Methods/process] Space, scenario, management, and marketing are the four core elements of the operation of park green spaces. Space, as the physical carrier of operation, provides a place for people’s activities in parks; scenario focuses on the feelings and experiences of tourists in parks and is related to tourists’ satisfaction with parks; management covers the cost input of various resources in the operation process and plays a key role in the economic benefits of park operation; marketing involves the online and offline business operation logic of parks and directly affects the commercial revenue and market influence of parks. [Results/conclusion] Therefore, this research focuses on the above four aspects and divides the operational mode for empowerment by digital technology into the improvement and revitalization of green space, the creation of innovative consumption scenarios, the reduction of operation and maintenance costs and improvement of efficiency, and the improvement of unified revenue and expenditure in marketing. 1) Data-driven improvement and revitalization of space. Through the data-driven mode, accurately identify the inefficiently utilized space and potential demand gaps, and thus formulate targeted transformation strategies to achieve the coordinated improvement of tourists’ needs and space utilization efficiency. 2) Innovative experience in operation scenarios. Digital technology can help reconstruct the logic of scenario experience and consumption mode and. through immersive experience value addition and service efficiency enhancement, activate the integration of the functions and commercial value of park green spaces. 3) Cost reduction and efficiency improvement in operation and maintenance management. Through digital technologies such as AI, Large Language Model, and Big Data, improve the unmanned and automated level of the whole process of environmental event response, resource ledger management, and personnel scheduling to achieve cost reduction and efficiency improvement in park operation. 4) “Online + offline” coordinated management in marketing and operation. Based on data-driven construction of an “online + offline” integrated marketing management mode, through precise reach, business format linkage, and integration of digital platforms, achieve the optimization of tourists’ experience and the improvement of the commercial closed-loop efficiency, ultimately reducing costs and increasing revenue. Based on the above, four specific technical points for implementing the operational mode in reality are proposed as follows. 1) Multi-source data as an auxiliary tool for constructing accurate tourist portraits and optimizing space. Use data to complete the identification of tourists’ needs, diagnosis of inefficient spaces, and optimization and revitalization. 2) Integration of virtuality and reality to promote innovative operation scenarios. Digital technology can realize the immersive experience of integrating virtual and real scenarios, improve the cultural, ecological, and artistic values of parks, make the commercial operation lightweight by means of self-service and upgrading of consumption conversion efficiency, and thus construct a sustainable closed loop of revenue. 3) Construction of a management platform to achieve intelligent operation and maintenance. Through the construction of IoT foundation, data middle platform, and AI-driven platform intelligent agent, achieve intelligent operation and maintenance of parks. 4) Aggregation of traffic and integration of data to enhance operation efficiency. Vertically integrate consumption scenarios in depth, connect court services, equipment rental, and healthy catering support with the sports consumption chain, and connect outdoor science education, natural practice classes, and theme derivatives development with the parent – child consumption chain; besides, horizontally expand cross-domain cooperation, jointly build a ticket intercommunication and point conversion system with surrounding scenic spots and commercial entities, and activate the regional consumption synergy effect.

[Objective] Innovation of the theory and method for compact and low-carbon urban planning from the perspective of climate resilience has become a strategic direction to meet the needs of future spatial management and development. The compact and low-carbon urban spatial planning guided by the climate resilience concept has broader research connotation, which not only contains a single theoretical unit, but could be regarded as a comprehensive system including quantitative evaluation and practical guidance. Emphasizing the coordination organization and comprehensive regulation among complex urban systems, the aforesaid spatial planning approach aims to enhance the structural adaptability of urban synthesis.

[Methods] This research takes the climate resilience planning as the objective, reviews the foundational research and development trends of climate-resilient cities, compact cities, and low-carbon cities, as well as their intersection. Following the workflow of evolution description – mechanism analysis – simulation optimization, the research constructs a theoretical framework and technical path for optimizing the multi-scale comprehensive evaluation system for urban space from the perspective of climate resilience, and proposes compatible optimization strategies for different scales.

[Results] Climate resilience is an emerging concept, whose connotation and application have been widely discussed in the planning research field in recent years. A review existing research reveals that, the application of interdisciplinary research, comprehensive quantitative assessment and technical innovation to promote the development of spatial practice of climate resilience theory has become the main research direction in the planning field to cope with the climate dilemma. The multi-scale and systematic evaluation indicator system of compact cities, the quantification of the development efficiency of compact cities, and the integration of low-carbon development will remain the focus of future research. Calculating the level of urban low-carbon development, construction, economy or efficiency based on the panel data of cities or urban agglomerations, and adopting emerging measurement methods or models to carry out research on spatial form and adaptive strategies have become essential contents for realizing low-carbon cities. Therefore, the cross-direction development with economics, ecology and other disciplines, covering multiple urban construction elements, and the construction of operable evaluation technology under multi-scale planning still need to be further expanded and improved. The theoretical framework for comprehensive evaluation of urban space from the perspective of climate resilience could be summarized as three progressive steps including characteristic description, mechanism analysis and simulation optimization. The evaluation indicator system integrates the typical indicators of climate-resilient cities, low-carbon cities and compact cities, and relevant highly overlapped indicators, which is divided into five categories including spatial structure, functional layout, social economy, balanced carbon emission and carbon sink, and ecological environment. In terms of work flow, firstly, according to the indicator evaluation table, a comprehensive evaluation is carried out based on quantity and spatial pattern, as well as temporal trend. Secondly, the internal collaborative development trend is reflected, and the external driving factors affecting the overall evaluation to fully reflect the internal and external interaction, with a focus on the influence relationship of different scales. Finally, the results are compared with the predictions of natural development and climate resilience development scenarios, based on which multi-level optimization strategies are proposed.

[Conclusion] As for specific optimization strategies, spatial planning from the regional scale to the community scale is interrelated and collaborative. At the regional scale, the spatial optimization strategy is the regulation of the total scale and the construction of security pattern. Based on the current resource condition and with the total scale control of urban construction and carbon emissions as the preset goals, the ecological security network barrier is constructed by important blue and green nature resources, and the basic stability ability to cope with climate change is comprehensively improved by the scale constraint of construction expansion and total carbon emissions, and the soft constraint of natural ecology. At the urban scale, the optimization strategy is climate risk prevention and resource flow assurance. By responding to and connecting macro-regulation at the regional level, governance at the urban scale is more complex, and could be delimited from boundary demarcation, land use, functional layout, infrastructure facility coverage and other planning construction aspects to support climate resilience. Focusing on urban central areas for economic development and population aggregation, aligning various planning and construction efforts with emergency measures against extreme climate conditions can ensure the timely allocation and flexible supply of facilities and services, thus better preventing and coping with climate risks. At the community scale, the optimization strategy is pilot innovative construction and spatial system transformation. Blocks are the units of urban spatial construction, and spatial optimization at the block scale is more feasible to improve the timeliness and accuracy of responding to climate change through pilot construction and spatial order organization, and to carry out relevant planning work from the aspects of technological innovation, digital management, space utilization and public participation. By building a theoretical framework, refining work processes, integrating multi-scale evaluation indicators and technical methods, and bridging cross-scale optimization content, the research expands the research perspectives and application scenarios of spatial governance from the perspective of climate resilience under the support of compact and low-carbon development, which may provide a scientific and technical basis for achieving urban sustainable development.

[Objective] China’s urbanization has entered a new phase of connotative development. The concept of “People’s City” is driving the transformation of urban recreational green space (URGS) planning towards “human-oriented demands”. In the post-pandemic era, residents’ leisure behaviors have shown characteristics such as proximity, healthiness, and diversity. AI technology has further given rise to differentiated recreational demands. The current URGS layout is confronted with shortcomings such as emphasizing indicators over demand response in planning, insufficient functional integration, structural imbalance in services, and low system integration. This research, through systematic review and theoretical prospect, innovatively constructs a “theoretical framework for URGS planning that responds to human-oriented demands”, breaking through the limitations of traditional static adaptation, promoting the dynamic coupling of URGS with people’s lifestyle, and supporting the modern governance goals of precision, refinement, depth, intelligence, and excellence. This research may provide theoretical support for resolving the structural mismatch contradiction between URGS layout and diversified demands.

[Methods] The China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) and Web of Science Core Collection are taken as data sources, journal article is determined as literature type, and the retrieval time is set from January 1st 2000 to December 31th 2024 based on the characteristics of the publication period. The advanced search formula for the subject terms of Chinese AND English literature is TS=(“recreation*” OR “leisure” OR “tour*” OR “entertain*”) AND (“green space*” OR “park*”) AND (“layout” OR “planning” OR “design*”). After eliminating the items irrelevant to the research topic, 687 Chinese and 345 English literature articles are ultimately selected as the research object. CiteSpace 6.2.R6 is utilized to conduct visual analysis of the selected articles, supplemented by traditional literature review methods and inductive comparative analysis. This approach systematically examines the evolutionary stages, research hotspots, and trend characteristics of URGS layout research, aiming to advance a forward-looking layout framework.

[Results] 1) Evolutionary stages: Research on URGS layout in China has progressed from planning control to spatial governance. From 2000 to 2009, it was the period of rough demand identification – initial exploration, with more attention paid to the configuration of recreational functions and scale estimation around the supply side. From 2010 to 2016, it was the period of coarse demand response – fluctuating growth, promoting the transformation of China’s URGS layout towards “social equity – demand response”. From 2017 to 2024, it was the period of refined and rapid development in demand, catering to diverse recreational demands. 2) Research hotspots: Common dimensions encompass human-oriented planning and governance, demand-differentiated green space provision, and recreational experience – health co-benefits. However, Chinese literature research prioritizes macro-level planning and supply-side refinement, while English literature emphasizes meso & micro-scale empirical studies and demand-side drivers. 3) Development trends: While both Chinese and English research converge on green space layout based on socio-spatial and spatiotemporal behavioral differentiation for demand identification, their divergences persist in primary research focus, depth of interdisciplinary integration, and intensity of policy-coupling. 4) Theoretical system: A “theoretical system framework for URGS layout that responds to human-oriented demands” has been constructed, covering a multi-dimensional hierarchical classification system based on the “time – space – demand” principle; based on the principle of “differential justice”, the traditional classification of green spaces has been broken and a “recreational circle” layout system adapting to urban functional spaces has been constructed; an evaluation-optimization system employing digital intelligence technologies for supply-demand matching has been constructed to advance optimally regulated connotative development.

[Conclusion] This research aims to address systemic issues — including extensive URGS system development, insufficient functional integration, low supply – demand matching efficiency, and inadequate open sharing mechanisms — by proposing holistic solutions with reference value for future urban recreational space planning, policy-making, and research. 1) Spatial planning dimension: Promote the statutory institutionalization and systematization of URGS-specific planning, clarify its position within the territorial spatial planning framework, strengthen horizontal coordination and vertical implementation, and guide high-quality development of diversified recreational green spaces. 2) Policy orientation dimension: Focus on diverse public needs to deepen the connotation of “human-oriented demands”. Establish a precision-tailored methodological framework for supply – demand matching, creating a synergistic governance model combining “top-down guidance” and “bottom-up participation” to operationalize differential justice in spatial allocation. 3) Academic research dimension: Construct a three-dimensional theoretical framework integrating recreational systems with resource distribution patterns, spatial ring characteristics and urban functional layouts. This research significantly enhances the precision and depth of population demand identification, considers behavioral traits and visitation preferences, and develops a demand-driven URGS layout adaptation model responsive to distinct urban functional spatial requirements. The accuracy and depth of crowd demand identification have been enhanced, taking into account behavioral characteristics and access preferences. Furthermore, an URGS layout adaptation mode driven by the demands of different urban functional spaces is proposed. This research responds to the people’s demand for a better life and is of great significance for promoting the transformation of URGS layout to a refined supply that responds to the differences in group demands, resolving the structural mismatch contradiction between URGS layout and diverse recreational demands, and ultimately achieving the dual goals of a sense of gain and happiness in green well-being.

[Objective] As an important part of the rural human settlement environment, public space is a place for the daily social activities of the elderly left behind in the countryside, and it also provides emotional support for these elderly people. In the process of long-term human − land interaction, the less mobile left-behind elderly have formed a stronger attachment to these spaces and environments. However, under the influence of rapid urbanization and tourism, the countryside has experienced rapid transformation and restructuring, facing the double crisis of the demise of the physical environment and the weakening of cultural connotations. Besides, the problems of homogenization and modeling of rural public space are prominent, making the left-behind elderly unable to retrieve their original sense of belonging and identity, and the relationship between people and place is very tense and acute. Therefore, it is of great significance to explore the relationship between rural public space and place attachment and its influence mechanism to cope with aging scientifically and enhance the happiness of the left-behind elderly.

[Methods] Taking four villages in Beijing as the research object, this research evaluates the characteristics of rural public space based on deep learning, MATLAB software, social network analysis, questionnaire survey, etc., carries out spatial visualization analysis of the place attachment of the left-behind elderly in the villages through the public participation geographic information system (PPGIS), and finally explores the influence mechanism of the characteristics of rural public space on the place attachment of the left-behind elderly through the construction of a multiple linear regression analysis model.

[Results] The results indicate that the top three sites with the highest average place attachment scores in Nanjiao Village are the Goddess Temple Square (4.32), the Village Committee Square (4.18), and the Xuandi Temple (3.83). In Heilongguan Village, the highest scores are recorded for the Dayue Platform (4.19), the Open Space in Front of Houses (3.98), and the Dragon God Temple Square (3.87). In Shuiyu Village, the top sites include the Goddess Temple Square (4.23), the Ancient Sophora Tree (4.12), the Grand Stage (3.78), and the East Street Gate Tower (3.78). Finally, in Liulinshui Village, the highest scores are associated with the Area Around the Vegetable Plots (4.13), the Big Millstone Alley (3.93), and the Opera Stage (3.91). In terms of the spatial distribution characteristics of the strength of local attachment, the local attachment of the left-behind elderly shows the “multi-center” distribution characteristics of strong intermittency and high local concentration, and the high value areas of local attachment are mainly concentrated in the spiritual and cultural spaces with rich connotation and daily life spaces that are convenient and easy to reach. Regarding the influence mechanism of rural public space characteristics on the place attachment of the left-behind elderly, on the whole, the cultural and spatial characteristics of rural public space constitute the core dimensions of place dependence and place identity, followed by the influence of artificial characteristics, while the influence of natural characteristics on the place attachment of the left-behind elderly is relatively limited, and only the greening coverage positively contributes to the place dependence by enhancing the ecological comfort of public space, but has no direct influence on the place identity. In terms of specific characteristic indicators, a total of 10 public space characteristic factors significantly affect the place dependence of the left-behind elderly, among which accessibility, activity participation, vegetation coverage and building density are the key factors positively affecting the place dependence of the left-behind elderly, while the negative interference index and the degree of spatial enclosure are the key factors negatively affecting the place dependence of the left-behind elderly. There are eight influencing factors of place identity, among which the degree of neighborhood affinity, the degree of preservation of historical relics, the degree of participation in activities and building density have a greater positive influence on place identity, and the degree of colorfulness has a significant negative influence on place identity.

[Conclusion] Based on the influence mechanism of rural public space characteristics on place attachment, this research proposes four optimization strategies for rural public spaces. 1) Construct an elderly-friendly spatial network to promote neighborhood social interaction. Specifically, we should create a barrier-free rural public space network integrated with “memory anchor points” to encourage left-behind elderly residents to spontaneously organize traditional festival activities and demonstrations of traditional skills. This approach transforms public spaces into dual carriers of neighborhood collaboration and cultural activities, enhances the participation of the left-behind elderly in activities, and thereby strengthens their sense of place dependence. 2) Safeguard carriers of local memory to reinforce historical identity and emotional connection. Specifically, we should restore and revitalize traditional spiritual and cultural spaces by converting historical memories into perceptible cultural narratives through methods such as displaying old photographs, exhibiting agricultural tools, and screening videos, and at the same time establish rural color management guidelines to preserve the authenticity of the rural human settlement environment. 3) Rationalize control of building density to reduce interference from modern elements. Specifically, we should optimize the architectural layout around public spaces to form a hierarchical transition between “architecture − space − nature”, and appropriately regulate the placement and quantity of modern facilities such as billboards and signages to ensure their style harmonizes with the surrounding environment, thereby minimizing the impact of modern elements on the daily lives and production activities of left-behind elderly residents. 4) Enhance ecological comfort to strengthen the foundation for human − landscape interaction. Specifically, we should focus on increasing green coverage rates to improve the microclimate environment in rural areas and enhance the ecological comfort of public spaces. In addition, we should create diversified elderly-friendly scenarios incorporating natural elements such as water systems and vegetable gardens to foster continuous interaction between left-behind elderly residents and the natural environment. The results of the research can provide scientific guidelines and case studies for building an age-friendly rural human settlement environment.

[Objective] In the mid-to-late stages of China’s urbanization process, the high-quality development of existing urban areas has placed higher demands on the functions and benefits of park green spaces, making operations a new focus for the renewal and construction of urban parks. However, due to constraints such as construction scale, resource endowment, location and transportation, customer base, as well as external factors like public welfare attributes, funding sources, and policies, existing urban park operation strategies can hardly fully utilize the potential value of green spaces and achieve the ideal revenue capacity needed to support continuous park operation. The rise of sectors such as integrated transportation and tourism, and the low-altitude economy, highlights the opportunities that entertainment consumption and new technologies bring to the construction industry. As a dynamic form of the digital economy, video games are exerting a significant radiating effect on the consumer service and cultural tourism sectors. This research explores the use of gamification methods to provide new ideas for digital economy operation of urban parks, with a view to seizing these emerging opportunities and unlocking the diverse values of urban parks. [Methods] The positive value of games is gaining wider recognition and serving as an important cultural and artistic medium across more interdisciplinary fields. Game researchers have begun to use spaces like natural wilderness areas, archives, and art galleries as platforms for promoting the positive value of games. Urban parks also possess the potential to serve as carriers of the positive value of games. In game studies, landscape architecture has always been an important research subject, providing materials and support from perspectives such as art and landscape history. Gamification methods and related technologies have already been applied in various forms in the teaching, research, and new display media within the field of landscape architecture. [Results] Like landscape architecture, games carry leisure and recreational functions and profound cultural attributes, with their design and operation reflecting simulations of the real world. Based on these common characteristics, this research uses mainstream ontological thinking from game studies to establish a shared ontological model for both games and landscape architecture. The model includes three core elements: environment, people, and rules Using these elements as a framework, the research explores gamification applications in three aspects: design, service, and operation. The results identify three categories of methods: Interactive experience-oriented scene design, human-centered service based on co-creation relationships, and rules and operations for sustained revenue. These methods not only provide a conceptual framework for park operations but also offer support for other work related to urban parks. Based on this system of methods, an analogy and transfer approach is used to create a framework for the sustainable operation of gamified parks within the digital economy. This includes conservative and radical digital economy mode transfer approaches, value-added products and token systems, consumption service scenarios and event planning directions, as well as the construction of support and security systems. [Conclusion] The gamification methods derived from ontological thinking in landscape architecture cover potential gamified application scenarios in the design, service, and operation domains of landscape architecture, complementing existing application areas and supporting the construction of a gamified digital economy operation system for parks. This system is expected to promote the exploration of diverse values, including economic, data, and cultural aspects of park green spaces, such as value-added development, revenue enhancement, data collection, and cultural exploration and display. However, the above methods and systems require broader practical verification and attention to risks related to over-commercialization and cultural censorship. Gamification methods can also help landscape architecture professionals explore new paths for industry transformation in terms of spatial limitations, identity constraints, and cooperation mechanisms. Green spaces can also leverage their open and shared attributes to become spaces for promoting positive game values and game literacy development. Relying on innovation in interdisciplinary fields, this approach can support the shift of the planning and construction industry from the “finite game” seeking incremental growth to the “infinite game” seeking continuous renewals.

[Objective] The research investigates the systemic transformation of urban park green space management and operation in China from the dual perspectives of public goods provision and fiscal sustainability. Against the backdrop of shifting urbanization paradigms and tightening fiscal constraints, the research seeks to deconstruct the historical evolution of park governance mechanisms across three developmental phases — from the planned economy era to market-driven reforms and contemporary fiscal dependency — while addressing the structural contradictions between public welfare imperatives and financial viability. By integrating theoretical frameworks of quasi-public goods with fiscal challenges, the research aims to propose institutional pathways for sustainable park governance aligned with China’s high-quality development agenda, emphasizing ecological preservation, social equity, and economic resilience. [Methods] The research employs an integrated analytical framework to systematically investigate the dynamic interplay between urbanization processes, fiscal capacities, and park governance mechanisms, with a focus on supply-demand evolution across historical phases. By staging China’s urban development into three critical eras — pre-reform era, market transition era, and land-finance dominance era — the research traces how shifting spatial production modes reconfigures park management paradigms. The research adopts a multi-dimensional analytical approach, combining historical – institutional analysis on the evolution of urban park green spaces, paying attention to the logic and backgrounds of policy-making, as well as relevant policies and regulations across different historical periods, and examining the evolutionary process of policy adjustments and their interplay with shifting societal demands about urban park green space. [Results] The research delineates the systemic challenges driving the imperative for park governance reform, framed within three transformation shifts. First, the transition from high-speed growth to high-quality development redefines park objectives, prioritizing service equity over quantitative metrics, while confronting the inherent tension between ecological optimization and rigid regulatory constraints. Second, the shift from incremental expansion to stock-oriented urban renewal exposes the fiscal vulnerability of growth driven by land finance, which previously enabled rapid park green space expansion, making local governance burdened by high maintenance costs and hidden liabilities. Third, the transition from investment-led to consumption-driven growth repositions parks as catalysts for urban vitality, yet existing policies inadequately harness their potential for commercial synergy or public health dividends. On the supply side, fiscal austerity and debt containment policies severely constrain traditional funding channels. The tax-sharing reform initiated in the mid-1990s and the subsequent emergence of China’s land finance policies fundamentally reshaped local fiscal priorities, driving a strategic prioritized productive infrastructure over public services. However, recently rising public expectations for equalization of basic public services, are getting a higher priority for local government. Fiscal expenditures dedicated to urban park green spaces will likely to be squeezed in the future. At the same time, driven by the requirements for high-quality development, the ecological and recreational quality of urban park green spaces must be continuously enhanced, which leads to a paradox: Parks are increasingly vital for urban resilience but remain fiscally marginalized. The research identifies critical insights into the systemic transformation of urban park operation and management, centered on four pivotal dimensions outlined in the research’s reform framework. The transition from government – dominated supply models to multi-agent governance emerges as both a necessity and a challenge. While historical reliance on state control ensured public service provision, it also entrenched inefficiency and fiscal dependency. Case analyses reveal that experiments involving nonprofit and private sectors — such as New York’s Bryant Park BID — demonstrate potential for cost efficiency and innovation. It is neither realistic nor scientifically sound to expect the government to assume “unlimited liability” in the provision of public services such as urban parks and green spaces. The government should not be the sole provider. Expectations of governmental responsibility for delivering park-related public goods must be moderated. As evidenced by the supply of public services in education, healthcare, and housing — where social capital and market-driven mechanisms have played critical, even central roles — there is significant instructive value for redefining the composition of supply entities in park green space provision. The research also raises the perspective that the sustainable financial model for park green spaces is important. Considering that the current project-based investment model for public infrastructure often creates conflicts between short-term incentives and sustainability goals, the life-cycle financial assessment framework must be taken as the foundation of the financial model. Meanwhile, plenty income and cash flow is fatal to build up the financial cycle of park operation, which may entail the the adjustment of laws and regulations, improvement of leasable assets and regeneration of park-side urban areas. Then, the reforms on local tax system and innovative financing mechanisms should also be taken as primarily goals of reformation. [Conclusion] The research concludes that China’s urban park green space governance necessitates paradigm shifts across governance, financial, policy, and evaluative dimensions. Transitioning from state supply to multi-supply operation, involving nonprofit organizations and social enterprises could enhance efficiency and equity. Financial model innovation should integrate land value capture taxes, ecological asset securitization, and controlled commercial leasing, particularly for high-value urban core parks. Modernizing policy frameworks to accommodate regional disparities and allowing selective revenue-generation strategies may balance ecological mandates with fiscal realities. Crucially, replacing output-based metrics with outcome-oriented indicators measuring health impacts and social cohesion could realign incentives with public value creation. Ultimately, reimagining parks as economic value engine — rather than fiscal liabilities — requires institutionalizing synergies between ecological preservation, economic vitality, and participatory governance, positioning green spaces as a foundation for sustainable urbanization and Chinese-type modernization.

[Objective] Facing frequent extreme climate disasters from global change, especially severe rainstorms and floods, human society faces unprecedented challenges. According to the Global Disaster Data Platform, floods have become one of the main factors causing global casualties and social and economic losses. In 2021, floods accounted for 56.13% of major natural disasters worldwide, causing 41.87% of disaster-related deaths. In the same year, the torrential rain in Zhengzhou caused 380 deaths and direct economic losses of 40.9 billion yuan. These data reveal the destructive nature of floods and the current disaster vulnerability of cities. Therefore, this research delves deeply into the ancient Chinese concepts and experiences of flood resilience, distills universal prevention and control strategies from the long-term flood control practices of the ancients, and provides scientific guidance for current urban construction and disaster prevention and mitigation, in order to enhance the flood resilience of cities, reduce disaster losses, and ensure the safety of people’s lives and property.

[Methods] To comprehensively analyze the concept of resilience to withstand flood in ancient China, this research adopts a multi-dimensional approach: by sorting out historical records and cases to construct a theoretical − methodological − practical cognitive framework, it explores its theoretical basis, methodological system and practical application; this research analyzes the traditional concept from three aspects: flood control, flood response and flood adaptation. At the flood control level, it focuses on the construction, maintenance and strategy formulation and implementation of flood control facilities in ancient cities. At the flood response level, it explores the emergency mechanisms, rescue measures and post-disaster reconstruction of ancient people. At the flood adaptation level, it emphasizes the concept of coexistence between humans and floods, and achieves harmony between cities and floods by adjusting urban layout and optimizing water conservancy facilities. At the same time, from the perspectives of multi-party coexistence and game symbiosis, it analyzes concept of resilience to withstand flood the evolution and adaptation of the ancient flood control resilience concept in different historical periods and regional backgrounds to more comprehensively reveal its internal logic and laws.

[Results] After an in-depth analysis of ancient flood control ideas such as urban management and water conservancy projects, this research summarizes the evolution law of the concept of resilience to withstand flood from “passive prevention and control” to “active diversion” and then to “harmonious coexistence”. During the passive prevention and control stage, ancient people mainly built defense facilities such as city walls and DAMS to resist floods. Although this alleviated disasters, it had problems such as insufficient defense and high maintenance costs. With the advancement of technology and the deepening of understanding, active drainage strategies have gradually become mainstream. By excavating canals and building reservoirs to regulate water flow, the threat of floods can be effectively reduced. However, there are also limitations such as soil erosion and ecological damage. In the long-term practice, the ancients gradually formed the concept of harmonious coexistence with floods. Through measures such as afforestation and building wetland parks, they not only enhanced the flood control capacity of cities but also protected the ecology, achieving harmonious coexistence between humans and nature.

[Conclusion] By analyzing the changes in the concepts and experiences of flood resilience in ancient China, this research draws conclusions and inspirations: First, the wisdom and experience accumulated by the ancients in long-term flood control have important reference significance for enhancing the current flood resilience of cities; secondly, the ancient Chinese concept of resilience to withstand flood has undergone an evolution from “passive prevention and control − active guidance − harmonious coexistence”, which reflects the ancients’ profound understanding of the relationship between humans and nature. Thirdly, it proposes three levels of resilience disaster prevention experiences: “conforming to nature”, “adapting to the trend”, and “adapting to local conditions”. Conforming to nature means respecting the laws and conforming to the characteristics of floods, and achieving coexistence between humans and nature through reasonable planning. Adapting to the trend means making use of the terrain and hydrological conditions and adopting flexible flood control measures to enhance efficiency. Adapting measures to local conditions means adapting to the environmental and economic conditions of different regions and formulating strategies that are in line with local realities. These experiences are not only of great significance for enhancing the flood resilience of Chinese cities, but also provide references for disaster prevention and mitigation in cities around the world.

[Objective] With the advancement of information technology and regional integration, urban networks are more vulnerable to various disaster disturbances, posing serious challenges to population mobility, information transmission, industrial collaboration and innovative cooperation. Urban network resilience is an important issue in regional resilience research. The term reflects the ability of urban network systems to develop, strengthen, resist, and recover quickly from disaster disturbances, through the collaboration of urban networks. The current research on urban network resilience primarily focuses on network structure and network function, seldom considering systematic review of evaluation methods for urban network resilience. Therefore, this research comprehensively summarizes the evaluation methods for urban network resilience from the perspective of network elements.

[Methods] Based on the bibliometric method, this research analyzes the previous research on urban network resilience, revealing the research hotspots and evolution trends in this field. By following the workflow of network types – network characteristics – evaluation methods, the research constructs an evaluation framework of urban network resilience based on network elements.

[Results] More and more scholars pay attention to the evaluation methods for urban network resilience. Firstly, the characteristics of multiple urban networks and their disaster application scenarios are quite different. The transportation network focuses on the mobility of population flow and accessibility of infrastructure. The information network considers the promptness and diversity of disaster risk information transmission. The economic network focuses on the self-sufficiency and scale of capital supply. The innovation network emphasizes the asymmetry and mediation of knowledge cooperation. Natural disasters, public health events and accidents often restrict population mobility. In this research, the transportation network is selected for resilience evaluation. Economic and innovation networks are selected to reflect the stability of industrial cooperation and technological exchange in the face of long-term disasters, such as the economic crisis, the COVID-19 epidemic, and socio-economic pressures. The information network is selected for exploring the risk perception of urban residents to various disaster disturbances. Secondly, the evaluation methods for urban network resilience based on four network elements have different advantages. The evaluation method for urban network resilience based on network node can identify the key nodes with positive influence or negative disaster transmission ability in urban networks. The evaluation method for urban network resilience based on network connection can assess the connection strength and dependency relationships between different nodes. The evaluation method for urban network resilience based on network structure can explore the urban networks with different morphological characteristics and topological structures. The evaluation method for urban network resilience based on network function can realize the function assessment by simulating multiple disaster disturbance scenarios. Thirdly, this research proposes an evaluation framework for urban network resilience based on network elements, aiming to achieve a breakthrough in network resilience evaluation from “single network evaluation” to “multiple network evaluation”. This evaluation framework involves three stages. In the first stage, when selecting the type of urban network, the intensity of disaster disturbances on urban network is considered. The urban networks include transportation networks, information networks, economic networks and innovation networks. In the second stage, the influence path of disaster disturbances on urban network characteristics is considered, and appropriate urban network characteristics are selected. In the third stage, the evaluation methods focus on four network elements, including network node, network connection, network structure and network function. When choosing the evaluation methods for urban network resilience, the types, attributes and characteristics of urban networks are considered. However, the research on urban network resilience faces limitations. 1) Little attention has been paid to the disaster propagation ability of network nodes, and the diffusion mechanism of disaster disturbances needs to be further analyzed. 2) The complex effects of connection type, connection direction and topological feature on spatial effects need to be explored. 3) Social network analysis is the main evaluation method for network structure. A scientific and unified evaluation framework has not yet formed. 4) The simulation results of network function cannot sufficiently represent the disaster disturbances in the real world.

[Conclusion] There exists a large amount of research on urban network resilience to resist single disaster disturbance. The research fields include urban planning, geography, disaster science, etc.. Some research directions need to be deepened. 1) Evaluation method based on network node. Network propagation model, agent-based model and other model methods need to be emphasized in future research, in order to simulate the dynamic diffusion process of information, virus, and population. The important nodes in urban network that have both resource control function and disaster adaptation ability should be identified. 2) Evaluation method based on network connection. The evaluation method of spatial effect of network connection should be improved by combining the centrality, agglomeration, transmission and other topological indicators. 3) Evaluation method based on network structure. It is necessary to integrate macro-scale and micro-scale evaluation methods, so as to effectively compare the evaluation results at different scales. 4) Evaluation method based on network function. Deep learning methods such as recurrent neural network model and long short-term memory network model should be adopted. It is necessary to establish a network function simulation model under multi-disaster scenarios to improve the accuracy of research results.

[Objective] Urban regeneration has become a critical component of sustainable urban development, especially as Chinese cities transform from large-scale expansion to stock-based optimization. Within this transformation, traditional old city neighborhoods represent the most challenging yet urgent targets for regeneration. These areas are characterized by high density, fragmented property rights, aging infrastructure, and the need to balance cultural heritage preservation with contemporary demands for livability, environmental performance, and low-carbon development. Green assessment systems at the neighborhood/community scale — such as BREEAM-Communities (UK), LEED-ND (US), CASBEE-UD (Japan), and DGNB-UD (Germany) — have matured over the past two decades, providing systematic frameworks that integrate environmental, social, and economic dimensions. However, the existing research primarily focuses on new development contexts, leaving a gap in strategies for traditional neighborhoods with unique spatial and governance constraints. This research therefore aims to explore how international green assessment tools can inform adaptive regeneration strategies for traditional old city neighborhoods in China. The research introduces a dual-dimensional “goal – process” framework that not only responds to global sustainability objectives but also addresses the full cycle of planning, construction, and management. Taking Beijing’s traditional neighborhoods as an example, the research seeks to demonstrate how generalized frameworks can be transformed into specialized tools that guide context-sensitive and operable regeneration strategies.

[Methods] The research adopts a multi-step research pathway. First, a systematic review of four representative international green neighborhood assessment systems is conducted to extract key indicators. These indicators are mapped and reorganized into a general “goal – process” framework: The goal dimension encompasses environmental, social, and economic sustainability (aligned with the United Nation’s “3E” principle), while the process dimension covers planning, construction, and management stages. Second, the framework is refined into a universal strategy system through indicator integration and reclassification, ensuring operability across diverse neighborhood regeneration contexts. Third, the framework is applied to Beijing’s traditional neighborhoods, where field surveys, spatial data analysis, and community/stakeholder interviews are carried out. The general framework is further adapted into a specialized regeneration framework by adjusting indicator priorities, identifying specific contradictions, and formulating targeted strategies. Furthermore, the research team integrates relevant data — including the environmental characteristics of neighborhood location, the constraint factors from higher-level planning, and the spatial characteristics of neighborhood courtyards — with textual data for overall analysis. This process helps identify the case’s characteristics as well as the key priorities and difficulties in the regeneration work. Then, based on the aforementioned specialized framework, the team leverages corresponding key strategies to conduct targeted regeneration and transformation.

[Results] The results highlight both theoretical contributions and practical applications. First, framework innovation: The general “goal – process” framework successfully bridges international assessment standards with China’s local regeneration contexts. Unlike static indicator systems, it emphasizes multi-objective sustainability and full-cycle governance, offering a flexible and operable strategy matrix. Second, case-based adaptation: Applied to Beijing’s old city neighborhoods, the framework clarifies regeneration priorities such as density optimization, functional mix, public space enhancement, and resilience building. Third, diagnostic insights: Empirical analysis reveals three distinctive pathways. 1) functional integration and energy efficiency — e.g., courtyard regeneration through mixed-use design and underground space development; 2) perceptual greening — introducing algorithms to measure and optimize residents’ visual perception of greenery, which guides the placement of vertical greening and green materials; 3) stakeholder negotiation — quantifying divergent demands (residential rights, commercial capacity, and public services) through text-mining and spatial modeling, which facilitates consensus building in previously stalled projects. Finally, performance verification: The framework proves effective in converting abstract sustainability goals into actionable regeneration measures. It not only identifies the contradictions between heritage preservation and livability improvement but also offers scalable strategies adaptable to various neighborhood conditions.

[Conclusion] This research demonstrates that integrating international green assessment tools into a general “goal – process” framework provides both conceptual clarity and practical operability for the regeneration of traditional old city neighborhoods. Unlike conventional evaluation systems that emphasize comprehensive but rigid indicators, the proposed approach is open, adaptive, and problem-oriented. By combining systematic indicator mapping with empirical case validation, the framework offers a pathway to balance universal sustainability goals with local specificities. Its contributions are threefold: 1) Advancing theoretical understanding of how assessment systems can be transformed into strategy-oriented frameworks for incremental regeneration; 2) providing a replicable methodological process — diagnosis, prioritization, and adaptation — that can be applied to other historic urban areas; and 3) supporting policy and design decisions with evidence-based, context-sensitive strategies. Overall, the research enriches the toolkit for sustainable neighborhood regeneration in China and offers international relevance by demonstrating how global frameworks can be localized to address the complexities of heritage-based urban regeneration. Looking forward, future research should further integrate carbon accounting, resilience modeling, and digital twin technologies to enhance dynamic evaluation. In doing so, the proposed framework has the potential not only to enrich the global discourse on sustainable urban regeneration but also to inform practical pathways for cities worldwide that face the dual challenge of heritage preservation and green transformation.

[Objective] Expanding the coverage of territorial spatial planning to the whole territory and all elements provides an opportunity for the protection and development of historical heritage. The evolution of the cultural landscape of urban historical parks, an urban cultural heritage and an important territorial space, is a medium for the transformation, continuation and reconstruction of the modern city. Under the value orientation of the heritage protection system, strengthening the spatial connection and temporal order among heritage resources can cope with the dilemma of spatial homogenization and fragmentation of the cultural landscape. [Methods] This research takes Xiamen Zhongshan Park (the “Park”) as an example for the interpretation and value assessment of the historical layering process. It constructs a cultural landscape heritage layering model of Xiamen Zhongshan Park by combining ancient literature and the spatial interpretation of ancient maps, and employing the historic urban landscape (HUL) method. By systematically analyzing the characters of the cultural landscape, the distribution patterns of the kernel density of cultural landscape, the layering pattern, and the dynamic superposition of cultural connotations in different periods, the research analyzes the dynamics of the layering evolution of the Park’s cultural landscape. Through expert scoring, the historical importance and cultural influence, artistic aesthetics, social leadership, development potential, and heritage survival status of the cultural landscape heritage of Xiamen Zhongshan Park are assessed, and the value attributes (mainly ontological and reuse values) of such cultural landscape heritage are interpreted by constructing an assessment system. [Results] This research shows that the layering evolution of cultural landscape in Xiamen Zhongshan Park went through five periods. The initial construction in the germination period formed a preliminary cultural landscape layering space of memorial, natural and landscape scenery sources, as well as special gardens, with cultural scenery sources distributed in a concentrated pattern across the northern, central, and southern areas of the Park. During the destruction period, the development of Xiamen Zhongshan Park stagnated due to the strong force of political power. During the recovery period, the purpose of park construction was to restore the original appearance and maintain the original functions on the basis of adding public facilities of commemorative significance, in an attempt to enhance the Park’s landscape and educational nature. During the recession period, with only some natural and landscape scenery sources remaining, showing a layering state of accumulation in the north and disappearance in the south. During the revival period, the memorial scenery sources, scenic buildings, and special gardens showed a uniform distribution of layering. The spatial functions of cultural landscapes are diversified, forming a multi-integrated cultural landscape layering state. By combing the characters of cultural landscape and the kernel density of cultural landscape distribution in different periods of the Park, the cultural landscape information of multiple periods is superimposed to generate a layering slicing map and a cultural connotation evolution map of the map. According to the results of the layering interpretation, five layering modes of recession, augmentation, juxtaposition, coverage, and regeneration of Xiamen Zhongshan Park are refined, and multiple layering modes are superimposed on each other in the continuous and dynamic evolution of the Park from the modern era to the present day. By retracing the evolution of the Park’s cultural landscape, the driving factors affecting the layering evolution of the Park’s cultural landscape are extracted. The location environment determines the Park’s landscape architecture, forming the initial state of the cultural landscape layering, the public’s demand influences the creation of space in the Park with the change of the times and thus affects the layering evolution, and the urban construction and social politics play a strong role in the layering of cultural landscape through relevant historical, economic, and political elements. In addition, the historical importance, cultural influence, artistic aesthetics, social leadership, and development potential of the Park’s scenic spots are significantly higher than their heritage survival status, which is related to the transformation of the elements in the cultural landscape layering model of Xiamen Zhongshan Park. In view of this, it is necessary to link the natural and cultural heritage resources in the Park, establish a systematic framework for interpreting the value of heritage, and revitalize the styles and features of historical landscapes. [Conclusion] This research examines Xiamen Zhongshan Park as a living cultural landscape heritage, and explores the processes, patterns, and mechanisms of cultural landscape heritage superposition across different periods from a dynamic evolutionary perspective. By taking a holistic view of the Park’s heritage value and evolution, this research aims to establish an assessment system for assessing the values and identifying its defining characteristics of the Park’s cultural landscape heritage. The findings seek to inform strategies for the scientific management, comprehensive protection, and sustainable development of urban historical parks. Xiamen Zhongshan Park is not only a historical cultural artifact but also a symbol of urban heritage and modern identity. Analyzing the mechanisms of cultural landscape characterization and value assessment from the perspective of temporal accumulation offers a comprehensive approach to preserving value continuity and supporting the organic renewal of this historic park, bridging territorial spatial planning with heritage preservation.

[Objective] Quantitative analysis of children’s behaviors has emerged as a new requirement in the research on urban public spaces. To this end, the primary focus of research lies in the precise spatiotemporal positioning of the crowd within the space. Traditional methods often involve long-term video recording and manual notation of crowd positions in every frame using the “observation method”. While effective, these methods are time-intensive. With the development of computer vision technology, it has become possible to automate the tracking of complex crowd behaviors in public spaces, thereby introducing novel methodologies for computational analysis in urban public space. However, the detailed identification and analysis of different crowd categories, such as children and parents, remain a significant challenge. This research aims to establish a computational analysis method for multi-subject behavior based on targeted computer vision tracking. This method reveals interaction patterns among children, parents and spatial morphology, thereby supporting spatial optimization designs for specific crowd behaviors. [Methods] Taking multi-subject interaction behaviors in public spaces as the research object, this research adopts a three-stage research approach: technological investigation, methodology construction, and case study validation. Initially, the technical framework for targeted pedestrian tracking is established. Video data is recorded from selected angles based on spatial conditions, ensuring adequate representation of spatial-temporal dynamics. And a pre-trained deep learning model is adopted for precise localization and trajectory annotation of pedestrians. Subsequently, computational analysis and visualization methods for revealing the interaction behaviors of different groups are explored, which involves a pedestrian identification threshold model based on human proportion characteristics that enables targeted identification and differentiation of children from adults, and a dedicated analysis module designed to visualize behavioral patterns of each identified crowd and thereby provide visual patterns for the spatial-temporal distributions of different crowds. Finally, the effectiveness of the multi-subject behavior analysis framework is validated through a case study on children’s recreational public spaces. The research selects two typical children’s recreational public spaces located in commercial areas. It analyzes three key behavioral metrics: average spatial distance distribution, stay duration distribution, and passer-by count distribution. Correlation analyses and interpretations of these metrics reveal the interaction patterns between children and parents and their relationship with the spatial morphological layout. [Results] The computational analysis method for multi-subject behavior enables long-term, large-scale behavioral data collection and analysis for different crowd categories. The case study on the children’s recreational public spaces reveals that, children’s activities in radially organized spatial layouts tend to be concentrated independently in central areas, while parents often move along the periphery for supervision. No significant overlap between the activity areas of children and parents is observed, suggesting minimal need for spatial overlap consideration. In such designs, the focus should be on the orientation of children’s activity spaces, as the layout of play facilities affects the observation points of supervising parents. In linear spatial layouts, parents and children closely accompany each other, primarily engaging in stationary supervision. These layouts require the consideration of spatial overlap between parents and children, as well as additional seating or rest facilities. The placement of play facilities in linear spaces significantly influences both children’s resting positions and parents’ supervision points. The empirical findings indicate that tracking technology based on human proportion features is effective for identifying target children and adults crowds at the scale of public space. The computational analysis method based on congestion degree, static usage rate, and dynamic usage rate systematically reveals adult − child interaction dynamics, and the cross-comparative analysis using visualized heatmaps uncovers the effects of spatial features on multi-subject interaction behaviors. [Conclusion] The computational analysis method for multi-subject behavior supports spatial behavioral research involving interactions of various crowd categories and is applicable to post-occupancy evaluations and design optimization in complex public spaces. It facilitates targeted spatial renovations and facility placements based on the actual spatial usage and behavioral requirements of different crowds. The research further recognizes existing technological limitations and potential future developments. While the method effectively differentiates adults and children using body aspect ratios, it cannot yet distinguish other demographic groups and their detailed semantic behaviors. Therefore, future development using human pose tracking is essential for more refined analysis. Furthermore, this research primarily explores technical methodologies based on a case study on children’s recreational spaces in commercial areas, resulting in certain sample limitations. Future research should expand the case categories, propose comprehensive optimization principles, and validate outcomes through feedback from practical projects.

[Objective] Urban areas are increasingly vulnerable to compound rainstorm and heatwave (CRH) disaster risks. Existing research primarily treats rainstorms and heatwaves as isolated risks, resulting in a limited understanding of CRH dynamics and insufficient mitigation strategies. While ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction (Eco-DRR) offers adaptive solutions for multiple disasters, its application to CRH remains underdeveloped. Key challenges include methodological gaps in CRH risk assessment and Eco-DRR application in the planning of disaster risk reduction.

[Methods] This research develops a planning framework grounded in Eco-DRR theory to address CRH disaster risks. First, the research employs a risk assessment methodology driven by multi-source data to overcome the constraints of traditional single-disaster assessment approaches. The research utilizes daily precipitation and maximum temperature data from Shanghai meteorological stations (2011–2023) to identify CRH events using a maximum temporal interval criterion. Subsequently, disaster records of rainstorms and heatwaves within the event time window are extracted as target variables, while raster data of climatic, topographic, geomorphic, and hydrological influencing factors are derived using ENVI and ArcGIS tools as explanatory variables, forming CRH disaster datasets for training a random forest model. The datasets are partitioned into training and testing sets at a 7:3 ratio. The probability of disaster event occurrence is calculated on a grid-by-grid basis. Disaster risks are classified into high, medium, and low levels using the natural breaks classification method (Jenks), visualized for CRH risks on the ArcGIS platform, and ultimately integrated into a bivariate spatial distribution map through a compound risk matrix. Second, Eco-DRR principles are systematically integrated into territorial spatial planning systems to transition from reactive single-disaster mitigation to proactive resilience-driven strategies. The systematic integration of Eco-DRR theory into the aforesaid planning framework establishes an implementation logic of “risk assessment – planning objectives – support system – spatial configuration – management measures” across five core components. Based on the above, the research proposes the following specific pathways. 1) Resilience goal setting: Defining township/subdistrict-level risk zoning and Eco-DRR targets based on citywide compound risk assessment results. 2) Support system development: Constructing an Eco-DRR support system incorporating mitigation and adaptation strategies. 3) Spatial configuration optimization: Determining spatial allocation schemes for Eco-DRR support elements guided by risk assessment outcomes. 4) Hierarchical management implementation: Coordinating management needs for transition between routine and emergency states under the “risk types – spatial features – planning objectives – management hierarchy” framework. Third, horizontal coordination between ecological spaces and comprehensive disaster prevention systems mitigates fragmentation in existing planning frameworks, establishing a replicable model for multi-disaster, multi-system planning for disaster risk reduction. The Eco-DRR theoretical framework resolves conflicts between multiple planning systems by enabling horizontal coordination between ecological spaces and comprehensive disaster prevention planning. Specifically, Eco-DRR is deconstructed into “+ ecology” and “+ disaster prevention” strategies, with “+ ecology” integrated into comprehensive disaster prevention planning, while “+ disaster prevention” is embedded within ecological spatial planning. Eco-DRR’s mitigation and adaptation strategies are implemented, with coordinated ecological and disaster prevention plans serving as the basis for detailed planning.

[Results] The research adopts random forest models for analysis to identify CRH events and map their spatial distribution in Shanghai. Results show that CRH disasters predominantly occur between May and September, peaking during the plum rain season and summer months. Annual cumulative durations have increased, exceeding 70 days in the past three years. The high-risk zones for compound risks are concentrated in the central urban areas of Hongqiao, Minhang, and Chuansha districts in Shanghai, as well as surrounding new towns, exhibiting spatial characteristics of “central concentration, peripheral dispersion, and local aggregation”. The spatial distribution patterns of compound risks align with urban development trajectories, with pronounced “rain island” and “heat island” effects. Getis-Ord Gi* analysis reveals that risk hotspots (p<0.05) radiate outward from the urban core to surrounding suburban coldspots. Guided by Eco-DRR theory, dual planning interventions are operationalized: 1) “+ disaster prevention” ecological spatial planning optimization: Eco-DRR constraint indicators embodying the “+ disaster prevention” concept are integrated into Shanghai’s ecological spatial support system. High-risk compound CRH zones are identified as Eco-DRR nodes within the green network, restructuring the outer green belt and suburban green ring. Resilience-compatible zoning is applied based on risk levels. 2) “+ ecology” comprehensive disaster prevention planning optimization: Eco-DRR principles guide “+ ecology” disaster mitigation strategies, including restructuring disaster spaces (shelters, evacuation routes, and zoning) and optimizing safety patterns through risk zoning, route upgrades, and facility improvements. CRH risk zoning informs differentiated construction guidelines, with dual-purpose zoning for normal & emergency states.

[Conclusion] This research aligns with territorial spatial planning mandates to address CRH risks through Eco-DRR mitigation and adaptation strategies, establishing an integrated territorial spatial planning framework for disaster risk reduction. A random forest-based CRH risk assessment model is developed; empirical analysis is conducted in Shanghai to explore planning pathways under the Eco-DRR theory. District-specific resilience objectives are formulated for subdistricts and structured into “+ ecology” and “+ disaster prevention” strategies. This approach fosters horizontal coordination between ecological spaces and disaster mitigation systems, advancing Eco-DRR integration into territorial spatial planning for disaster risk reduction. The planning methodology provides a replicable framework for CRH mitigation and adaptation in eastern coastal cities. Future research should expand applications to diverse compound climate extremes, incorporate advanced modeling techniques for prediction, and deepen investigations into CRH dynamics and blue – green infrastructure effects.

[Objective] Under the background of the optimization of urban construction stock, the improvement of street space quality has become an important leverage for urban quality and efficiency enhancement. Although the importance of human-centered street space quality enhancement has been widely recognized at theoretical and cognitive levels, there is still a lack of practical guidance and operational frameworks in actual design practice. Existing research mainly focuses on measuring street space elements and analyzing their influence weights, but still lacks the refined determination of the optimal threshold intervals for street space indicators. This gap makes it difficult to translate theoretical findings into specific spatial design standards and interventions. Additionally, current guidelines provide limited guidance on street space elements, with broad or missing element intervals and insufficient support from evidence-based practice. Therefore, this research, rooted in human perception, employs VR and wearable biosensors for embodied perception experiments to refine the threshold intervals of street space elements, thus enabling more precise and operational improvements in street space quality.

[Methods] In this research, based on classical research and current guidelines, 4 functional types, 2 classification levels, 4 key elements, and their corresponding guidance thresholds for street spaces are identified. Then, 8 typical streets are used as spatial prototypes, and 251 virtual reality scenes are constructed based on the threshold of each key element, 185 participants are recruited to conduct an embodied, evidence-based perception experiment integrating subjective preferences and wearable biosensors. Based on measurement data, the analysis begins with assessing psychological comfort of key street space elements using a grouped scatter plot from ChiPlot. This helps to verify the validity of the experimental data and optimize the empirical guidance intervals in the current guidelines, providing a reference for eliminating physiological data outliers and determining effective physiological threshold intervals. Then, the window-based change point detection algorithm is used to process the physiological data, and the threshold intervals of the key elements of different types of street spaces are further determined. Finally, the physiological threshold intervals are compared with the guidance intervals to evaluate the influence of physiological data on the refinement of threshold interval.

[Results] In psychological dimension, different street types have similar comfort intervals in terms of interface permeability and utility area width, and sidewalk width threshold exhibits “moderate effect”. Physiological analysis shows that sidewalk width threshold is not significantly affected by cycle parking, and the difference is between 0.6 − 1.2 m for most street types. The sidewalk width interval in traffic streets is significantly affected by road grade, with the main road ranging from 4.2 m to 5.1 m and the secondary road ranging from 2.4 m to 3.2 m. Participants have a higher demand for sidewalk width and interface permeability on main road in commercial streets. People generally feel more comfortable when the utility area width is between 3.7 m and 4.1 m, and interface permeability is between 74% and 86%. Finally, through the embodied evidence-based perception experiment, the research reveals that the quantitative results of physiological data are highly consistent with the participants’ subjective perception. Furthermore, physiological data can refine and supplement the guidance thresholds for elements in the current guidelines, with the threshold range contraction reaching 20% − 80%.

[Conclusion] This research proposes a systematic framework for analyzing the threshold interval of street space elements. Compared to previous analyses, this method refines the quality utility intervals of street space elements, breaking through the inherent paradigm of traditional research which is limited to the perception comfort measurement of street space quality. Additionally, this research combines virtual reality and wearable biosensor technologies to establish a comprehensive and easily applicable measurement framework. With this method, the rapid refinement of measurements for existing representative street types and the threshold intervals of spatial elements is achieved. This research also formulates specific design strategies and index recommendations from a quantitative perspective, thereby providing scientific basis and practical support for the accurate improvement of the built environment quality and design guidance and control.

[Objective] At this stage, Beijing’s urban development has entered an era of stock renewal, and urban landscaping has also shifted from “incremental expansion” to “stock quality improvement”. In this context, the concept of the capital as a “Garden City” has emerged. It is a new idea and strategy for the high-quality development of the capital, pointing out the direction for Beijing to build itself into a “world-class, harmonious and livable capital”. To better achieve the goal of “building the capital into a large garden”, Beijing has, based on its green resource endowments, designated 15 essence areas for Garden City building. The “Xiaoxishan – Three Hills and Five Gardens” area is one of the 15 essence areas designated in Beijing. With the continuous deepening of the “government affairs guarantee function” in recent years, the “Three Hills and Five Gardens” area has entered a new stage of stock optimization. At present, a new round of environmental improvement and upgrading actions is being promoted in this region. How to align with the current requirements for Garden City building and explore pathways for the renewal and quality enhancement of green spaces in the essence areas is of great significance for protecting and inheriting historical and cultural context, optimizing ecosystem service functions, improving the overall environmental quality, and enhancing the attractiveness and vitality of the essence areas.

[Methods] This research interprets the content of Garden City building and analyzes the natural and humanistic advantages that make the “Xiaoxishan – Three Hills and Five Gardens” area designated as an essence area. On this basis, this research focuses on three types of green spaces in the essence areas that are closely integrated with recreational functions, namely Yuanwaiyuan, historical gardens, and greenways, and takes them as the research object. Corresponding strategies for renewal and quality improvement are proposed in a problem-oriented manner from three aspects: overall planning of the area, meticulous shaping of nodes, and linear connectivity.

[Results] By implementing the spatial coordination strategies of “overall area planning, meticulous node shaping, and linear connection”, the research aims to enhance the quality and efficiency of regional green spaces in essence areas. The objective of overall area planning is to achieve the integration and optimization of the Yuanwaiyuan area. It primarily adopts the following four strategies. 1) Shape landscape characters in different areas according to their respective landscape characteristics. 2) Dig deep into historical and cultural information in light of the current site conditions by methods of reproducing historical features and marking historical memories to realize the expression and presentation of historical cultural information. 3) Proceeding from ecological service functions and the actual usage needs of visitors, implement the “quantity reduction and quality improvement” strategy within green spaces. 4) Improve the recreational functions to enrich visitors’ experience. Meticulous node shaping, aiming at the green rebirth of historic famous gardens, mainly adopts the following three strategies. 1) Take the surrounding environment of historic gardens as an integral part of the green base of the “Three Hills and Five Gardens”, and ensure that such surrounding environment is consistent with the overall landscape of the “Three Hills and Five Gardens” in terms of spatial pattern and landscape style. 2) Enhance the quality of the historic gardens themselves. 3) Promote the activation and utilization of historic gardens to realize the transformation from a single “garden scene” to multiple “scenes”. The goal of linear connection is to energize greenway networks, and it primarily adopts the following three strategies. 1) Upgrade and enhance existing greenways. 2) Establish a greenway network system. 3) Create distinctive brand travel routes.

[Conclusion] The development of green space in the “Xiaoxishan – Three Hills and Five Gardens” essence area needs to break the traditional concept of “garden” and regard different types of green spaces as organic components of the green base. By establishing a three-level spatial strategy system of “surface-point-line”, we can promote the transformation of project practice from the mindset of “protection and development of a single garden” to “integration and optimization of regional green spaces”, thus enhancing regional landscape quality and cultural value to foster the synergistic coexistence of historic preservation and contemporary urban development.

[Objective] The quality of pedestrian environments is a crucial component of campus planning for comprehensive universities. As contemporary higher education increasingly emphasizes interdisciplinary communication, well-designed pedestrian environments can help foster interaction, strengthen campus identity, and promote active mobility. However, a great deal of research has identified the pedestrian-unfriendly conditions of university campuses in China, particularly those constructed in recent decades. Most empirical research has focus on sidewalks in campuses, while overlooking the characteristics and qualities of pedestrian spaces within squares, green spaces, and void spaces, revealing the limitations of quantitative evaluation. The lack of systematic characterization in existing studies also limits their applicability as practical guidances for campus pedestrian planning, in which urban design plays an integrative role. Therefore, a systematic spatial and design analysis of exemplary cases is needed. Singapore stands out for its well-developed pedestrian networks that effectively respond to tropical climatic conditions, support placemaking, and integrate with campus and urban systems. These qualities are particularly evident in its two comprehensive universities: the National University of Singapore (NUS) and Nanyang Technological University (NTU). This research examines the spatial and design characteristics of pedestrian spaces in NUS and NTU, aiming to extract strategies applicable to campus regeneration. The research first establishes a framework through a literature review that synthesizes key factors related to campus pedestrian environments and distinctive characteristics of Singapore’s pedestrian planning. Building on this framework, the research combines quantitative spatial analysis with qualitative mapping, on-site observation, and design analysis to identify the configurational and design characteristics of pedestrian spaces in the campuses of the both universities mentioned above. The findings further inform a discussion on design and management strategies for improving pedestrian environments in other universities.
[Methods] This research employs a mixed-methods approach for analyzing the design characteristics of pedestrian spaces. First, the research establishes an analysis framework based on a literature review. The review summarizes key spatial factors related to pedestrian on the campus from the perspectives of international research and distinctive characteristics of Singapore’s pedestrian system. The framework comprises four dimensions: overall spatial layout, public space design and placemaking, landscape integration, and infrastructural application. Second, on-site observation, spatial analysis and design analysis are conducted to unpack the characteristics of the campuses of the both universities. Specifically, observation comprises photography, measurement, hand sketching and mapping. Design characteristics are summarized in an inductive approach, according to the four-dimensional framework. In particular, to analyze the overall spatial layout, comprehensive mapping and configurational analysis are conducted. Mapping overlays walking spaces with campus functional layout and transportation systems. Based on the space syntax theory, a configurational analysis is conducted to measure the spatial relationships between one pedestrian space to another. This research employs two classical parameters, integration and choice, to measure to-potential and through-potential of each pedestrian space in relating to other spaces at local (400 m radius) and district (2,000 m radius) scales.
[Results] The analysis reveals that both NUS and NTU develop comprehensive pedestrian systems characterized by the above four aspects, overall layout, public space, landscape integration, and infrastructural application. First, continuous networks of covered walkways connect academic, residential, and service functions, as well as public transport nodes. The compact built form of the campuses of the both universities shortens pedestrian distance, promotes pedestrian activities, and makes pedestrian systems more efficient. Public transport routes are accessible to the campuses and share stops with campus shuttle, well-connected with covered walkways. Major covered walkways are laid out effectively to support local pedestrian activities, shown by high 400 m Choice values. While campus roads are supportive to the public transport for accessing to the campuses, shown by 2,000 m Choice. Besides, special attention should be paid to relations between multiple types of pedestrian spaces and campus roads and the configurational legibility of pedestrian spaces. Second, pedestrian spaces at NUS and NTU are characterized by their public space design and placemaking, which extend pedestrian nodes into multifunctional places that support studying, social interaction, and leisure. These node spaces are equipped with diverse forms of seats, lights, plants and equipment for better thermal comfort, encouraging encounter and stay. In particular, maintaining pedestrian spaces, both paths and nodes, at a human scale is crucial not only for users’ comfort while staying, but also for minimumizing impact on nature. Third, landscape integration balances aesthetic design with ecological and environmental performance. Shaded corridors, rain gardens, and terrain-responsive pathways enhance thermal comfort, support stormwater management, and strengthen ecological sustainability, while preserving the natural terrain and reinforcing campus identity. Fourth, infrastructure application comprises pedestrian-friendly elements and climate-responsive design. Natural ventilation, canopies, and semi-open transitions enhance microclimatic comfort, while durable materials, modular drainage systems, and traffic-calming measures improve accessibility, safety, and long-term maintainability. Despite these strengths, challenges persist, such as narrow pedestrian routes and limited connectivity with adjacent neighborhoods. Nevertheless, the two Singapore examples illustrate how progressive infill and adaptive design renewal can transform pedestrian systems into cohesive, efficient, and socially vibrant pedestrian environments.
[Conclusion] NUS and NTU demonstrate effective coverage of pedestrian spaces for core university functions with limited investment. Moreover, design strategies integrating pedestrian spaces with campus functions, public spaces, landscape resources, and transport systems can create walkable, vibrant, multi-functional and thermally comfortable pedestrian environments. Beyond spatial layout and design, the study offers more insights for universities subject to regeneration, particularly in China. First, despite different campus form, pedestrian space can be incrementally integrate with teaching and research spaces, amenities, and public transport. Second, creating vibrant pedestrian spaces and fostering placemaking of public space require accessible campus for pedestrian and open building public and transport spaces. A new Town & Gown relationship comprising accessible campus, shared facilities and open buildings means new management paradigms. Third, a compact building layout combined with human-scale public spaces forms the spatial foundation for active pedestrian space. This is achievable through the innovation of climate-response design elements, even under the current sunlight code of China. Fourth, digital analytical tools, such as behavioral tracking and environmental monitoring, can support participatory planning and performance evaluation. Successful campus pedestrian systems emerge from the coordination of spatial design, institutional management, and functional programming.

[Objective] Amid rapid urbanization and the increasing frequency of extreme climate events, urban systems are facing escalating systemic risks. As the fundamental unit of urban governance, community resilience — the capacity to withstand, adapt to, and recover from risks — has become a key concern in public administration. However, disparities in resource allocation, spatial power structures, and uneven risk exposure have made old and dilapidated communities — characterized by aging facilities, complex demographic structures, and weak infrastructure — concentrated zones of urban risk inequality. In China, there are over 200,000 such communities, home to more than 100 million residents, which are highly vulnerable to natural disasters, public safety incidents, and public health emergencies. These vulnerabilities generate a negative feedback loop of “vulnerable group concentration – declining resilience – cyclical risk accumulation” . Therefore, optimizing spatial resource allocation and addressing both external shocks and internal risks are essential to exploring resilience governance pathways that enhance the ability of diverse groups in old and dilapidated communities to resist, adapt, and recover rapidly, thereby strengthening grassroots governance and advancing resilient city construction.

[Methods] This research adopts a triangulated methodology integrating comparative analysis, inductive – deductive reasoning, and systematic literature review to clarify the conceptual foundations and mechanisms of risk inequality, identifying four core dimensions of community resilience governance, namely the spatial, social, institutional, and technological dimensions. Focusing on old and dilapidated communities, the research uses risk inequality as an analytical lens to systematically deconstruct structural barriers to resilience governance, revealing mechanisms of risk differentiation and institutional root causes. Drawing on social vulnerability theory, spatial justice theory, and resilience theory, the research develops an analytical framework centered on three pillars: stakeholder identification, resource allocation optimization, and adaptive governance responsiveness. Guided by spatial justice principles, the framework promotes multi-level, cross-dimensional interventions — including infrastructure renewal, governance structure reform, technological upgrading, and social capital rebuilding — to dismantle structural constraints of risk inequality, promote equitable risk distribution, and strengthen sustainable adaptive capacity.

[Results] The research reveals that risk inequality is neither accidental nor monocausal, but stems from the long-entangled interplay of multifaceted social, economic, and environmental factors, which collectively undermine the systemic resilience and sustainable development of old and dilapidated communities. Amid escalating uncertainties and increasingly frequent risk events, the diversification of risk sources and compounded community vulnerabilities synergistically amplify hazard impacts. Old and dilapidated communities — characterized by physical infrastructure decay, institutional inertia, eroded social capital, and technological marginalization — have become epicenters of risk inequality, where vulnerable groups face systemic disadvantages in disaster exposure levels, access to emergency resources, and adaptive response capacity. To address these challenges, resilience governance for old and dilapidated communities must focus on integrating internal/external resources, revitalizing institutional mechanisms, and holistically enhancing residents’ risk-coping capacities, thereby strengthening communities’ ability to withstand shocks while maintaining operational stability and sustainable trajectories. Centering on vulnerable subpopulations and spatial demands for disaster preparedness, the research embeds spatial justice principles into resilience governance frameworks. Key strategies include: precision identification of vulnerability profiles through data-driven diagnostics, optimized allocation of disaster-response spatial resources, dynamic simulation of emergency protocols, and construction of multi-stakeholder collaborative networks. These strategies disrupt the traditional “one-size-fits-all” governance paradigm, replacing rigid frameworks with adaptive, equity-driven interventions that reconcile structural risk disparities and foster inclusive resilience. To address the heterogeneous vulnerabilities of community subgroups, this research proposes differentiated governance strategies across four resilience dimensions: spatial, social, institutional, and technological dimensions. First, spatial integration of normal and emergency functions should be prioritized to establish a tiered public space system for risk management. Second, adaptive capacities must be strengthened by fostering endogenous community mutual-aid networks grounded in multi-stakeholder collaboration. Third, resource provision should be optimized through flexible risk prevention policies and dynamic compensation mechanisms. Fourth, technological compatibility requires enhancement via the development of inclusive smart governance tools for community resilience.

[Conclusion] The resilience governance of old and dilapidated communities should incorporate the concept of spatial justice, emphasizing the precise identification of vulnerability demands, optimization of disaster-response spatial configurations, dynamic simulation of operational workflows, and establishment of multi-stakeholder collaborative networks. This approach aims to dismantle the traditional “one-size-fits-all” governance mindset, advancing resilient community theory from a “system preservation” paradigm to one centered on “social equity”. Looking forward, resilience governance frameworks need refinement to address distinct challenges in traditional courtyard communities, state-owned unit housing, and modern residential complexes. This involves defining risk typologies, deciphering causal mechanisms, evaluating resilience components, and formulating tailored mitigation strategies. Besides, quantitative methodologies should be advanced to monitor risk fluctuations, measure vulnerability thresholds, conduct stress tests, and analyze spatiotemporal risk distribution patterns among vulnerable groups. Integration of cutting-edge tools — such as geographic information system (GIS), big data analytics, system dynamics, and social network analysis — can enable behavior-based simulations to innovate early warning systems and resilience governance models. This dual-track advancement of theory and technology will catalyze inclusive, adaptive, and sustainable transformations in old and dilapidated urban communities.

[Objective] The research on carbon neutrality, in an ecological – environmental perspective, is a major mission of the landscape architecture discipline. In the global pursuit of low-carbon urban development, communities play a pivotal role in advancing low-carbon initiatives at the meso – micro scale. Since 2015, China has initiated a series of pilot projects to establish low-carbon communities following the issuance of national guidelines. However, the current policy implementation paths in China are not yet mature, primarily relying on the organization of pilot programs in various regions, which poses certain challenges for the promotion and scaling-up of low-carbon community development. Relevant policies rely predominantly on operational indicators for evaluation, offering inadequate feedback to guide implementation and design. This research aims to explore effective implementation paths for low-carbon community policies to promote sustainable development and broader dissemination of low-carbon communities in China.

[Methods] This research employs an analytical framework of “institution – strategy – tool” (IST) to dissect policies related to low-carbon community development. Institutions, strategies, and tools are the three pivotal elements of an implementation pathway mechanism; the collaborative mode that these three elements jointly shape and the operational process thereof constitute the implementation paths discussed in this research. The research begins with a comparative overview of widely-used low-carbon community policies at home and abroad, highlighting their institutional backgrounds, strategic focuses, and implementation tools. Subsequently, the research conducts an in-depth analysis of two representative policies: LEED 4.0 Neighborhood Development (LEED-ND), a market-driven, standardized evaluation system developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), and ÉcoQuartier, a government-led, adaptive governance initiative launched by the French Ministry of Ecology. Besides analyzing these two representative policies through the IST framework, the research compares these international models with China’s current practices, identifying gaps and opportunities for improvement in the Chinese context.

[Results] The results demonstrate that different institutional contexts give rise to distinct strategies, which in turn shape corresponding implementation tools and thereby generate divergent implementation paths. The positive synergy among their three core elements — institutions, strategies, and tools — is essential for the effective and efficient implementation of those policies. Strategies and tools are constructed under the foundational institutional conditions. The three elements then continuously influence and iteratively refine each other, progressively evolving into a well-integrated, mutually matched, and enduringly dynamic system for sustainable development. This sustained interaction fosters a long-term, effective process of stakeholder collaboration, enabling the transition of low-carbon community policies into its spatial interpretation. This can trigger a continuously accumulating positive spatial feedback loop.

[Conclusion] Both the indicator-based, highly quantified standardized evaluation pathways and the guidance-oriented, customized adaptive governance pathways have successfully engaged diverse social stakeholders, providing effective guidance or feedback mechanisms for low-carbon community development and forming a robust foundation for practical implementation and scaling-up. Therefore, to achieve the spatial grounding and positive accumulation of low-carbon development, the three elements — institutions, strategies, and tools — ought to be mutually aligned, forging a long-term, effective collaborative relationship among the stakeholders involved. Based on China’s current low-carbon community development, this research proposes three key optimization directions to enhance implementation effectiveness. This research argues that spatial – ecological landscape design tools that assist carbon reduction should be developed, thereby enhancing the spatial benefits and wider dissemination of China’s low-carbon community policies. First, to implement low-carbon community policies, market-based stakeholders should be incorporated to create a multi-stakeholder governance mechanism. Public funds should be strategically leveraged to attract social capitals, fostering a multi-stakeholder collaborative development mechanism. Unlike international practices, China’s current low-carbon community development relies heavily on direct government investment, resulting in significant financial burdens and limited scalability. To address this, mechanisms such as performance-based rewards and reputation marketing campaigns should be introduced to incentivize developers, businesses, and residents to actively participate in low-carbon projects. By ensuring all stakeholders perceive tangible benefits, broader support can be mobilized to collaboratively create sustainable communities. Second, technical exchanges and process-oriented coaching should be used to intensify design interactions. The fundamental purpose of developing a comprehensive indicator system is to achieve real carbon emission reductions in line with China’s “carbon peaking and carbon neutrality goals”. Technical exchanges and ongoing process support allow proven technical methods from pilot projects to be closely integrated with current project conditions, while progressively aligning low-carbon management practices and spatial design optimization requirements with each project’s renewal objectives. Only in this way can relatively abundant government funds be directed toward the specific and realistic needs of each project. Finally, policies should incorporate design strategies for spatial and ecological landscape optimization and tools tailored specifically to the community level, so as to ensure effective project implementation. International best practices demonstrate that spatial adjustments and optimizations can simultaneously enhance quality of life and reduce resource consumption, achieving low-carbon goals at a lower cost. Integrating spatial design elements into China’s low-carbon community policies, alongside existing technological carbon-reduction measures, can enable a more comprehensive and coordinated implementation of low-carbon strategies at the community level. This approach not only improves resource efficiency but also creates more livable and sustainable environments. This will align with global best practices while addressing the unique challenges and opportunities within China’s institutional and developmental context, ultimately contributing to the China’s broader climate goals.

[Objective] As cities enter the stage of stock optimization from expansion, improving urban quality and fostering harmonious coexistence between humans and nature have emerged as pressing priorities. Garden City construction, proposed by the capital, aims to systematically strengthen ecological resilience, improve public space quality, and raise residents’ satisfaction, forming a high-quality model integrating people, urban environment, industry, and green infrastructure. The “triple greening” approach — scientific greening, landscape colorization, and spatial verticalization — provides the technical foundation, driving urban transformation from gray to green spaces, two-dimensional to three-dimensional spaces, and closed to open spaces. Additionally, Garden City initiatives emphasize cross-departmental governance and multi-stakeholder collaboration. However, challenges remain, including limited public space resources with low utilization, unclear spatial ownership with fragmented responsibilities, and weak management and maintenance due to insufficient expertise and funding, all affecting construction quality. Therefore, developing an action framework and construction pathways grounded in the triple greening concept is vital to ensure effective implementation of Garden City projects.

[Methods/process] This research employs a combined approach of policy review and empirical synthesis to systematically analyze national and Beijing municipal policies and practical experiences related to Garden City construction. Focusing on the core questions of “where to construct”, “who constructs” and “how to construct” garden spaces, the research develops an action framework based on the dimensions of space, actor, and function. The spatial dimension challenges the conventional perception of green space as limited to parks, expanding it to include parklands, gray infrastructure, and vertical building spaces as potential sites for garden development. The actor dimension clarifies the roles and collaborative relationships among government bodies, enterprises, communities, and the public across the full lifecycle of planning, construction, and maintenance, emphasizing multi-stakeholder participation. The functional dimension highlights the multifunctional roles of green spaces, including ecological regulation, aesthetic enhancement, public health promotion, and community governance, supported by corresponding technical strategies and institutional mechanisms. Based on this framework, and guided by the “triple greening” technical system, several pathways for Garden City construction are proposed from four dimensions: ecological foundation, city – garden integration, management models, and co-governance mechanisms.

[Results/conclusion] Four pathways for Garden City construction are proposed. 1) Establish a resilient ecological foundation. This pathway prioritizes optimizing ecosystem services and conserving biodiversity by integrating water bodies, green corridors, and urban forests into interconnected ecological networks. The use of native species, low-maintenance practices, and near-natural succession enables diverse urban spaces to support climate-resilient systems. 2) Promote city – garden integration and spatial openness. By enhancing greening quality, spatial verticalization, and colorized urban interfaces, this approach advances the ecological transformation of gray infrastructure. Mechanisms such as “de-fencing” and time-sharing access models enable shared green spaces and equitable access across communities. 3) Improve multi-level collaborative governance. A three-tier governance model, comprising municipal coordination, interdepartmental collaboration, and grassroots implementation, is established to ensure accountability across planning, construction, and maintenance. Digital tools and intelligent management systems are adopted to support full lifecycle governance of green infrastructure. 4) Innovate participatory co-construction mechanisms. A multi-actor engagement model is proposed involving government leadership, enterprise support, community co-building, and public participation. Through adoption programs, ecological education, and digital empowerment platforms, residents are encouraged to become active stewards in sustainable urban greening. The research demonstrates that advancing Garden City construction depends not merely on expanding green space quantitatively but on achieving a systematic transformation integrating shared understanding, coordinated spatial planning, and collaborative governance. Moving forward, Garden City development should be pursued as a comprehensive spatial quality enhancement strategy that extends beyond traditional green spaces to encompass streets, vertical interfaces, and gray infrastructure, embedding and functionally coupling green elements within the urban fabric. Moreover, the focus should shift from an exclusive emphasis on landscape aesthetics toward highlighting the multi-functional value of green spaces in enhancing ecological resilience, mitigating urban risks, and improving public welfare. Through sustained multi-actor collaboration and institutional innovation, Garden City can evolve from conceptual visions to high-quality, scalable realities. The proposed “space – actor – function” framework offers strong theoretical and practical guidance, demonstrating high local adaptability and replicability, and has the potential to significantly advance urban green transformation and contribute to ecological civilization under the new paradigm of sustainable urban development.

[Objective] “Habitat garden” is an urban green space that integrates “habitat” and “garden”, and is a garden with habitat function, and auxiliary functions such as landscape beautification, leisure and recreation, communication and interaction, public education, health and healing, or improvement of living environment. It is a practical carrier to achieve the core goal of a garden city featuring “harmonious coexistence between man and nature”, and it is also an innovative model for urban biodiversity conservation. Clarifying the scientific construction approaches is key to promote the large-scale and standardized construction of habitat gardens in garden cities.

[Methods] Based on an in-depth examination of the definition and status of habitat gardens within the context of garden city construction, this research discusses in combination with practice, the feasible approach for habitat garden construction.

[Results] The habitat garden construction approaches consist of the following 4 steps. Firstly, select a habitat garden site in combination with multi-scale site analysis, while investigating local and surrounding biotic and abiotic environments. Secondly, evaluate environmental potential and further identify the target species to be restored. Thirdly, implement the project of habitat restoration and landscape creation according to the habitat characteristics and local function positioning of those target species. Finally, carry out ecological monitoring and nature-based habitat management in the project. As for the site selection for habitat garden, a multi-scale feasibility analysis should be conducted first, involving the ecological analysis of landscape connectivity index and ecological sources, and the feasibility analysis of land management. Then a site investigation should be conducted, including the investigation of nonbiological environment aiming to reveal the habitat characteristics of the selected site and clarify prominent environmental issues of the site, accompanied by a species, population, or community investigation for existing and former plants, insects, birds, small mammals, amphibians and reptile, soil and surface arthropods, soil microorganisms, and other biological groups within and around the site in an effort to understand the current and potential distribution levels of biodiversity in the site. The evaluation of environmental potential encompasses four key analytical components: biological distribution potential analysis for evaluating local spatial distribution and local habitat suitability of dominant species, populations, and ecological communities; interspecific interaction potential analysis for examining trophic relationships, competitive interactions, and symbiotic associations among organisms; community succession potential analysis for investigating ecosystem succession trajectories, developmental rates, and potential equilibrium states; migration potential analysis for assessing dispersal capabilities and movement patterns of flora and fauna. The project entails habitat restoration and landscape recreation for target species and populations comprising two integral components: One is that habitat construction strategy should be based on habitat and feeding preferences of the target species and populations, and optimize conditions to support organisms’ survival, reproduction, and adaptive capacity against stressors by replenishing native vegetation and food resources, creating sheltered microhabitats with optimal perching conditions, and restoring natural refuges; the other is to set up artificial overwintering sites for natural enemies within the site. The nature-based habitat management encompasses two key aspects: One is to emphasize the “self sustain” of the ecosystem by minimizing artificial interference, such as night protection, noise isolation, and volunteer plant protection, and the other is to provide necessary artificial regulation that conforms to nature, such as the removal or cutting of malignant weeds. The ecological monitoring is to realize the sustainable development and dynamic regulation of habitat gardens. The monitoring results show that the richness and abundance of natural enemies (including natural enemy insects, aphidophagus natural enemies, and aphidophagus ladybugs) in a habitat garden after one year of construction of the garden, along with the abundance of lacewings, are significantly higher than in ordinary green spaces. Conversely, the average pest density per branch in ordinary green spaces is 3.91 times higher than in the habitat garden. The construction of habitat gardens has achieved the goals of restoring local food chains and repairing nutrient relationships, while significantly advancing sustainable pest control and biodiversity enhancement. The vegetation richness has increased from over 30 to over 130, as well as the diversity of birds. Mammals such as the Northeast Hedgehog (Erinaceus amurensis) and Weasel (Mustela sibirica) have also built burrows here as habitat.

[Conclusion] This research proposes that the fundamental prerequisite for the construction of habitat gardens is the joint participation of multiple fields throughout the entire process, the key link for the construction of habitat gardens is the evaluation of environmental potential, and the basic guarantees for the sustainable development of habitat garden are ecological monitoring and habitat management in alignment with nature.

[Objective] In recent years, global climate change has precipitated frequent extreme weather events, particularly flash floods and urban waterlogging triggered by torrential rainfall. These phenomena have inflicted substantial economic losses and casualties worldwide. Among natural disasters, flooding exerts the most extensive impact and accounts for the most significant losses. The Pajiang River flood storage and detention area is the only flood storage and detention area in the Pearl River Basin. Besides, the Pajiang River flood storage and detention area is highly susceptible to extreme rainfall events during the annual flood season. This susceptibility frequently leads to flood formation, making the area a recurrent disaster hotspot. The Pajiang River flood storage and detention area plays a vital role in ensuring the flood control safety of downstream cities in Guangdong – Hong Kong – Macao Greater Bay Area, such as Guangzhou and Foshan. As a critical component of the flood risk mitigation framework, this area modulates flood peaks while retaining excess floodwater volumes. However, the activation of flood storage and detention areas often impacts the local ecological environment and disrupts associated economic activities. Therefore, it is essential to clarify the division mechanism of flood storage and detention areas and master scientific and accurate evaluation methods. This is key to balancing the flood control and disaster reduction responsibilities with ecological and economic development.

[Methods] Based on the ecological – economic perspective, this research takes the Pajiang River flood storage and detention area as an example, integrates the area’s sensitivity to flood disasters, ecosystem resilience and economic loss factors, and construct a three-level indicator system consisting of sensitivity, resilience and pressure. The analytic hierarchy process and entropy method are used to evaluate the spatial pattern characteristics of flood resilience in 2022, and the spatial autocorrelation model is applied to classify the priority areas of flood inundation in the Pajiang River flood storage and detention area, and then the landscape strategy of zoning management is proposed.

[Results] Research results are summarized as follows. 1) The comprehensive evaluation value of sensitivity – resilience – pressure (SRP) in the Paijiang River flood storage and detention area is mainly high and medium resilience, and the spatial distribution shows a clear pattern of “high in the east, and low in the west”. 2) The overall flood resilience exhibits significant spatial clustering, mainly distributed in high – high clustering zones. Most of the high – high clustering zones are concentrated in the southeastern hilly area, which are more susceptible to water retention and have extensive tree cover. A smaller portion of high – high clustering zones is found in the northeastern part of the research area, where the terrain is flat, landscape connectivity is high, and runoff retention capacity is significant. Scattered high – high clustering zones are located in the western part, where human development and construction activities are more intense. A smaller portion of high – high clustering zones is found in the northeastern part, where the terrain is flat, landscape connectivity is high, and runoff retention capacity is significant. Scattered high – high clustering zones are located in the western part, where human development and construction activities are more intense. 3) Based on the Moran’s I results for comprehensive flood resilience, the research area is divided into three types of management zones: Grade Ⅰ submerged zones require forest structure modification to enhance the resilience of forest ecosystems; Grade Ⅱ submerged zones need the establishment of wetland ecosystems; Grade Ⅲ submerged zones should focus on the development of agricultural and fishery industries, and the balance of flood control responsibilities with economic benefits. According to the local ecological status and socio-economic conditions, the priority zones of inundation are delineated, and landscape improvement strategies are put forward from three aspects: forest stand transformation, wetland ecosystem restoration, and development of agricultural and fishery industries.

[Conclusion] Research conclusions are as follows. 1) The developed indicator system is applicable not only to the Pajiang River flood storage and detention area, but also to analogous flood storage areas confronting similar challenges in flood control, ecological vulnerability, and development constraints. This provides methodological references for spatial optimization and flood risk management. 2) Spatial variations in flood resilience within the Pajiang River flood storage and detention area exhibit strong correlations with topographic conditions, vegetation coverage, and land use intensity. These findings substantiate the significant influence of terrain and vegetation structure on flood resilience, providing empirical support for nature-based flood mitigation strategies. 3) The proposed zoning management and structural landscape optimization strategies enhance ecological resilience while reducing economic losses. This delineates practical pathways for precision planning and adaptive management in flood storage and detention areas.