[Objective] The pressure of accelerated urbanization has caused rural landscapes to face the great challenges of reconstruction, homogenization and extinction, with rural landscapes gradually losing their diversity and regional characteristics. Compared with lowland villages, mountainous villages are constrained by special topography, rich in resources but backward in construction, and have always been the key and difficult areas in China’s rural revitalization work, and the identification and management of their landscape characters are particularly urgent. As a complex landscape system with multiple levels and diversity, the mountainous villages need a more comprehensive cross-scale tool to guide and manage the process of landscape change and the protection of local landscape characters. Landscape character assessment (LCA) is a mainstream method to identify landscape character, but its results often present a static, nodal and objective perception. The collective memory theory focuses on the dynamic characteristics of landscape evolution and is able to identify more subtle differences in landscape characters, compensating for the shortcomings of LCA in the temporal and human dimensions. Therefore, this research aims to 1) integrate LCA and collective memory theory to construct a theoretical and technical framework for multi-scale identification of mountainous rural landscape characters; 2) integrate quantitative analysis of LCA and qualitative interpretation of collective memory to solve the problem of spatialization of narrative memories; and 3) validate the scientific validity and effectiveness of the identification system through empirical evidence in the Wuling Mountain area.

[Methods] The research proposes to construct a multi-scale mountainous rural landscape character identification system. 1) Theoretical framework: Integrate LCA and collective memory theory to establish a systematic framework of “definition scope − element selection − classification and description − practical application”, realizing the layer-by-layer cognition and description from macroscopic to microscopic perspective. 2) Technical path: Establish the operational path of “data collection − character recognition − character translation”. The “extraction of memory carriers − spatial coordinate localization − generation of vector data” approach is used to realize the spatialization of collective memory. At the regional scale (Chongqing section of the Wuling Mountain area), natural elements such as elevation, and land cover are selected to identify landscape character zones. At the local scale (Qianjiang District), cultural elements such as land use, and characteristic villages are selected to identify landscape character categories. At the site scale (Taiji Township), traditional settlements, collective memory, and other cultural and culturally related elements are selected to identify landscape character units and elements. At the same time, the surviving condition of the character elements is marked.

[Results] The complexity and cultural diversity of the geographic environment in the Chongqing section of the Wuling Mountain area provide an ideal background for character identification. A multi-scale mountainous rural landscape character identification system is constructed and successfully applied to different scales (Chongqing section of the Wuling Mountain area − Qianjiang District − Taiji Town), which provides a regional reference for the identification and protection of mountainous rural landscape character. The identification system identifies 10 rural landscape character zones in the Chongqing section of the Wuling Mountain area at the regional scale, 8 rural landscape character categories in Qianjiang District at the local scale, and 6 rural landscape character units in Taiji Towns at the site scale. Cases such as the memory of natural beliefs (land temple) and the memory of the construction of public facilities (academy ruins) reflect the deep coupling of landscape character and the collective memory of the villagers. At the same time, marking the surviving condition of the character elements (including the disappearing elements) helps to explain the historical development of landscapes.

[Conclusion] Mountainous rural landscapes have both natural and humanistic attributes, and public participation and raising awareness of the cultural value of landscapes is a key part of rural landscape planning. This research analyzes the theoretical framework, technical path and practical application of the identification of mountainous rural landscape characters at multiple scales, and draws the following main conclusions. 1) The technical process of LCA can provide a spatial anchor point for collective memory, while collective memory can inject an interpretive dimension into LCA, and the two are complementary to help understand rural landscapes in a more comprehensive way. 2) It realizes the deep integration of the quantitative analysis of LCA and the qualitative interpretation of collective memory, clarifies the path of memory carrier materialization, and solves the problem that narrative memory can hardly interface with LCA technology. 3) The case of Wuling Mountain area proves that the identification system can effectively integrate geographic diversity, cultural characteristics and villagers’ perception, and realizes precise identification of landscape character through the synergistic collaboration of top-down (systematic delineation dominated by LCA) and bottom-up (local cognition driven by collective memory) identification, and provides a tool support for the national rural landscape planning and protection. In the future, the results of character identification should be transformed into planning actions through differentiated planning decisions, dynamic protection mechanisms, participatory governance, etc., so as to respond to the real dilemmas of rural planning.

[Objective] This research aims to quantify the geocultural characteristics of Chinese traditional villages through spatial network analysis, principal component analysis (PCA), and clustering algorithms. By constructing a national-scale agglomeration demarcation model, this research proposes differentiated conservation strategies to optimize conservation area delineation methods considering natural geography, historical culture, and socioeconomic dimensions. The research ultimately provides theoretical foundations for policy-making to balance heritage preservation with regional development dynamics.

[Methods] The research method adopted in this research is to combine graph theory and machine learning with data from the lists of six batches of traditional villages published by the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China and other departments. First, the minimum Spanning tree (MST) model weighted by the actual transportation time cost is adopted to carry out the preliminary clustering. This process quantifies the spatial connection strength between villages by prioritizing the selection of low-cost connections and cutting off high-cost connections, and ultimately forms a spatial structure that highlights transportation accessibility and spatial proximity. Then, through Principal Component analysis (PCA) and K-Means clustering methods, the multi-dimensional cultural and geographical characteristics are analyzed. The analysis objects not only include the clustering results obtained based on the MST method, but also cover natural and cultural elements. On this basis, this research constructs a characteristic spectrum based on the geographical, economic and cultural characteristics of traditional villages, and divides the villages into different agglomeration areas according to their natural geographical attributes and cultural attributes. And through the spatial superposition analysis method, the K-Means clustering method are observed to explore the cultural background, language system characteristics, environmental characteristics and architectural types involved in each zoning.

[Results] The MST and K-Means clustering results are respectively spatially superimposed and analyzed with the current situation of provincial administrative divisions across the country. The results show that the MST clustering boundaries based on transportation cost weighting are highly coexisting with the provincial administrative boundaries in provinces with dense traditional villages. This phenomenon stems from the characteristics of the MST method. The network construction principle of MST, which aims to minimize the overall transportation cost, makes it easier to form continuous clusters overlapping with administrative boundaries in areas with high density of traditional villages and strong transportation accessibility. Administrative boundaries are often delineated relying on geographical barriers such as rivers and mountains, and these barriers can lead to a significant increase in transportation costs, which is corresponding to the segmentation logic of MST that removes high-cost edges. In contrast, the K-Means clustering boundaries based on the MST clustering results and combined with the main components of natural and cultural elements such as topography, mountain and river aggregation, climate, and language system have a relatively high consistency with the provincial administrative boundaries in provinces with scattered traditional villages. The distribution of traditional villages in these provinces shows the characteristics of "broad geographical space" and overall “great dispersion”. The geographical and economic and cultural characteristics extracted by the PCA method show a spatial polarization of “small clusters”. In provinces with a high concentration of traditional villages, the delineated clusters are mostly distributed at the junctions of provincial administrative boundaries. This regularity indicates that the transportation network correlation and segmentation involved in MST can serve as the basis for the initial division of traditional village clusters. The division result of the “MST + PCA + K-Means” model can rely on the extraction ability of PCA for geographical, cultural and other characteristics, and form a comprehensive division result on the basis of simultaneously explaining the intrinsic connection between the geography and culture of each region.

[Conclusion] A comparative analysis of the MST clustering model weighted by actual transportation time cost, as well as geo-cultural zoning boundaries and administrative boundaries shows that when the MST clustering boundary is highly consistent with the transportation cost gradient, and the historical rationality of traditional zoning lies in its implicit consideration of transportation cost efficiency. A significant deviation indicates regionalization may be dominated by non-transport factors like cultural association and resource dependence; especially when the MST boundary crosses the transportation cost gradient, further analysis of cross-gradient cultural or economic drivers is needed. The MST weighted by transportation cost and the “principal component + K-Means” model essentially reflect the methodological opposition between “spatial determinism” and “cultural reductionism”. For research objects like traditional villages featuring the interaction of multiple scales and multiple influencing factors, it is necessary to break through the bottleneck of single quantitative analysis, comprehensively consider the combination of geography, culture and economy, and allow coexistence of transportation networks, language diffusion and other relationships to approach the true self-organization of characteristic traditional village clusters.

[Objective] The deactivation of cultural landscapes, limitations of restoration theories, and ambiguity of technical pathways are significant issues in the protection and development of traditional villages. These issues contribute to the loss of unique identity, ineffective activation, and unsustainable outcomes. To address these issues, this research aims to develop an adaptive landscape gene restoration model. This model seeks to move beyond static approaches by dynamically integrating intrinsic cultural – spatial “genes” into contemporary contexts. Furthermore, the research explicitly aims to explore and define a systematic technical pathway for the effective protection and activation of traditional village landscape genes, thereby enabling their sustainable revival. In summary, the aim is to develop an adaptive landscape gene restoration model and explore a systematic pathway for the protection and activation of traditional village landscape genes.

[Methods] The landscape gene theory regards villages as living cultural entities with genetic attributes, providing new perspectives and methods for solving the problems of the survival of traditional village culture and ecology. The landscape gene theory identifies the unique cultural features and spatial expression mechanisms of villages, which is applicable to the application scenarios of this research where key genes are identified for systematic protection. This research introduces the DFRI based theory as theoretical interfaces, and proposes an adaptive restoration model and a chained activation pathway of “identification – diagnosis – restoration”. This helps to view the protection and development of traditional villages as an organic whole, clarifies the steps and methods in protection practices, and avoids the fragmentation of protection work. With the landscape restoration of Xiankeng Village as the research object, this research, through case study methods, integrates the landscape gene theory framework with mutagenic factors to the landscape genes to implement landscape restoration strategies, causing the landscape genes to undergo favorable mutations and guiding the better inheritance and dissemination of landscape genes.

[Results] This research proposes the DFRI base (differentiation, form, response and iteration bases) theoretical model for adaptive restoration and the “identification – diagnosis – restoration” chained activation pathway: 1) Precisely identify and extract landscape genes through multiple technical methods, and construct a gene information chain; 2) based on the DFRI base theory and the landscape gene variation theory, inspect and diagnose the gene information chain; 3) according to the inspection and diagnosis results, formulate targeted restoration strategies such as differential deduction, form adjustment, response activation, and iterative continuation. The research identifies the key driving factors for the evolution of landscape genes in Xiankeng Village, including natural environment, social economy, cultural institutions, and modern construction needs. Through a systematic diagnosis of the mechanism of landscape gene variation, the research implements strategies such as differential deduction, form adjustment, function activation and iterative continuation to restore and recreate the vanished spaces existing only in historical memory. The guidance of favorable variations and the regulation of unfavorable variations in the restoration of the village landscapes in Xiankeng Village have verified the applicability of the aforesaid framework in the restoration of traditional village landscapes. The research restores the damaged landmark buildings, carry out form restoration and function activation, and implant new places, new functions, and new industries to activate the public spaces of the village.

[Conclusion] The results of the landscape restoration practice in Xiankeng Village show that the restoration model and pathway introduced in this research can enhance the cultural, ecological and economic benefits of the village, achieve the dynamic inheritance of cultural genes and the adaptation to modern functions, and realize the synergy between the integrated protection of cultural genes and the sustainable development of the village. The idea of new – old integration and coexistence provides a theoretical framework and practical model for similar traditional villages. Landscape gene variation is an inevitable evolutionary mechanism in the process of adapting to changes by traditional villages over time. By identifying and diagnosing landscape genes across multiple time sequences, it is possible to analyze the key variation factors influencing the formation and transmission of cultural landscapes in traditional villages at various historical stages, thereby helping to identify the variation factors that require attention in restoration strategies. Restoration strategies should not merely focus on replicating the physical form but should instead view landscape genes as carriers of cultural memory. By establishing a spatial layout where historical genes and modern functions coexist, we can guide the occurrence of beneficial variations and mitigate the cultural fragmentation and landscape degradation caused by adverse variations. Landscape gene variation is an inevitable process for traditional villages in the face of changes in the times and environment. When the landscape genes of traditional villages undergo adverse variation, restoration strategies should not merely replicate the physical carriers for them but should instead protect them as containers of memory. A balance must be struck between the preservation of historical genes and modern functional requirements. By achieving coexistence between the old and the new, new meanings can be imparted to the local site, which not only aids in the static preservation of the historical and cultural heritage of traditional villages but also promotes the functional regeneration of traditional cultural genes in modern society.

[Objective] In the context of global climate change, frequent extreme precipitation events have become a major threat to the sustainable development of mountainous rural areas. Rural areas, as composite ecosystems dominated by natural surface conditions, maintain a high proportion of vertical water exchange with strong natural hydrological regulation advantages. However, under the combined effects of disaster-bearing vulnerability and natural hydrological cycle characteristics, eco-hydrological regulation services in rural areas often exhibit a relatively tense but basically balanced “tight equilibrium” state. Increased storm risks induced by climate change and surface condition changes caused by land use alterations pose severe challenges to this “tight equilibrium” state. Current research on eco-hydrological regulation services in mountainous rural areas is relatively weak, particularly lacking systematic evaluation frameworks for supply – demand matching relationships under future extreme precipitation scenarios. Therefore, it is urgent to predict the dynamic evolution of rural ecosystem hydrological regulation services and evaluate the matching relationship between supply and demand, so as to provide a scientific basis for proactive responses to future risk challenges in rural areas.

[Methods] This research takes Mentougou District, Beijing as a typical case study area, which belongs to the Taihang Mountain foothills, with the Yongding River and its tributary Qingshui River as main waterways, characterized by steep mountains, deep valleys and narrow banks, where summer monsoons during flood seasons easily form topographic convergence and shear, leading to frequent heavy precipitation events. The research selects 57 gully catchment s covering rural areas in Mentougou District as basic analysis units, establishing a comprehensive analytical framework of “climate change – land use change – eco-hydrological service supply and demand”. Three Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) scenarios are employed, including SSP1-2.6 low emission scenario (representing strong emission reduction pathways), SSP2-4.5 medium emission scenario (reflecting moderate emission reduction efforts), and SSP5-8.5 high emission scenario (corresponding to the development pathways featuring high emissions from fossil fuels), which are combined with Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distribution models to calculate extreme precipitation events with a 100-year return period. The patch-generating land use simulation (PLUS) model is used in combination with Markov chain model to predict land use changes in 2050 and 2100, with model validation showing overall accuracy of 0.98 and Kappa coefficient of 0.98. Based on the SCS-CN model, eco-hydrological regulation service supply capacity is quantified, using runoff regulation rate to characterize the surface runoff regulation ability of each gully catchment. Fourteen flood susceptibility characteristic indicators are selected, including meteorological characteristics (20-year, 50-year, 100-year return period precipitation), topographic surface characteristics (slope, topographic position index, terrain ruggedness index, topographic wetness index, stream power index, plan curvature, profile curvature, normalized difference vegetation index), and construction characteristics (road density, river network density, land use). Eight machine learning models are compared, including Artificial Neural Network, Support Vector Machine, Extreme Gradient Boosting, Gradient Boosting, Random Forest, Extra Trees, Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LGBM), and Categorical Boosting. The LGBM model with optimal comprehensive performance (comprehensive score: 0.754) is ultimately selected for flood susceptibility mapping to represent eco-hydrological regulation service demand levels. The Z-score method is used to standardize supply capacity and demand levels, with quadrant division determining four supply – demand matching types: high supply – high demand, high supply – low demand, low supply – high demand, and low supply – low demand.

[Results] Results indicate that future extreme precipitation intensity will significantly increase with emission scenarios. Historical baseline extreme precipitation intensity averages 147.2 mm/day, with a relatively small increase in mid-21st century, but a notably larger increase in the late-21st century, particularly reaching 24.8% under high emission scenarios to 184.5 mm/day. The eco-hydrological regulation service supply capacity gradually weakens over time, with a median regulation rate of 49.9% in the baseline period. By the late-21st century, low emission scenarios decline to 46.28% (8.31% decrease) and high emission scenarios significantly decline to 43.61% (13.60% decrease). Conversely, eco-hydrological regulation service demand continues rising, with a median demand level of 0.181 in the baseline period, significantly increasing to 0.220 under high emission scenarios in the late-21st century (21.55% increase). Supply – demand matching analysis shows low supply – high demand gully catchments are mainly distributed along the mainstreams of the Yongding River and the Qingshui River. In the mid-21st century, the number of low supply – high demand gully catchments is 4, 6, and 10 under the low, medium and high emission scenarios respectively. While the late-21st century sees a significant increase in the number of low supply – high demand gully catchments to 11, 12, and 20 respectively under the aforesaid three emission scenarios, with over 100% growth under all emission scenarios, showing a trend of expansion from downstream to upstream areas.

[Conclusion] Based on supply – demand matching type analysis, the research proposes multi-level stormwater resilience planning strategies. For low supply – high demand gully catchments, it recommends enhancing stormwater retention capacity according to eco-hydrological supply – demand gaps, adopting comprehensive measures featuring “gray – green integration” to construct flood interception ditches and collection pools, thereby forming a spatial pattern of hierarchical retention. It recommends adopting the spatio-temporal planning strategy of “zoning-based progression, dynamic adjustment” that prioritizes low supply-high demand gully catchments and then gradually expands to other gully catchment types, and adjusting comprehensive intervention measures according to emission scenario evolution, thus forming systematic response mechanisms adapted to climate change processes. The research results provide a scientific basis and methodological support for mountainous rural areas to address future extreme precipitation challenges and optimize ecological flood control, offering important reference value for enhancing regional climate adaptation capacity and helping strengthen systematic stormwater resilience in mountainous rural areas against future extreme precipitation.

[Objective] As an important part of the rural human settlement environment, public space is a place for the daily social activities of the elderly left behind in the countryside, and it also provides emotional support for these elderly people. In the process of long-term human − land interaction, the less mobile left-behind elderly have formed a stronger attachment to these spaces and environments. However, under the influence of rapid urbanization and tourism, the countryside has experienced rapid transformation and restructuring, facing the double crisis of the demise of the physical environment and the weakening of cultural connotations. Besides, the problems of homogenization and modeling of rural public space are prominent, making the left-behind elderly unable to retrieve their original sense of belonging and identity, and the relationship between people and place is very tense and acute. Therefore, it is of great significance to explore the relationship between rural public space and place attachment and its influence mechanism to cope with aging scientifically and enhance the happiness of the left-behind elderly.

[Methods] Taking four villages in Beijing as the research object, this research evaluates the characteristics of rural public space based on deep learning, MATLAB software, social network analysis, questionnaire survey, etc., carries out spatial visualization analysis of the place attachment of the left-behind elderly in the villages through the public participation geographic information system (PPGIS), and finally explores the influence mechanism of the characteristics of rural public space on the place attachment of the left-behind elderly through the construction of a multiple linear regression analysis model.

[Results] The results indicate that the top three sites with the highest average place attachment scores in Nanjiao Village are the Goddess Temple Square (4.32), the Village Committee Square (4.18), and the Xuandi Temple (3.83). In Heilongguan Village, the highest scores are recorded for the Dayue Platform (4.19), the Open Space in Front of Houses (3.98), and the Dragon God Temple Square (3.87). In Shuiyu Village, the top sites include the Goddess Temple Square (4.23), the Ancient Sophora Tree (4.12), the Grand Stage (3.78), and the East Street Gate Tower (3.78). Finally, in Liulinshui Village, the highest scores are associated with the Area Around the Vegetable Plots (4.13), the Big Millstone Alley (3.93), and the Opera Stage (3.91). In terms of the spatial distribution characteristics of the strength of local attachment, the local attachment of the left-behind elderly shows the “multi-center” distribution characteristics of strong intermittency and high local concentration, and the high value areas of local attachment are mainly concentrated in the spiritual and cultural spaces with rich connotation and daily life spaces that are convenient and easy to reach. Regarding the influence mechanism of rural public space characteristics on the place attachment of the left-behind elderly, on the whole, the cultural and spatial characteristics of rural public space constitute the core dimensions of place dependence and place identity, followed by the influence of artificial characteristics, while the influence of natural characteristics on the place attachment of the left-behind elderly is relatively limited, and only the greening coverage positively contributes to the place dependence by enhancing the ecological comfort of public space, but has no direct influence on the place identity. In terms of specific characteristic indicators, a total of 10 public space characteristic factors significantly affect the place dependence of the left-behind elderly, among which accessibility, activity participation, vegetation coverage and building density are the key factors positively affecting the place dependence of the left-behind elderly, while the negative interference index and the degree of spatial enclosure are the key factors negatively affecting the place dependence of the left-behind elderly. There are eight influencing factors of place identity, among which the degree of neighborhood affinity, the degree of preservation of historical relics, the degree of participation in activities and building density have a greater positive influence on place identity, and the degree of colorfulness has a significant negative influence on place identity.

[Conclusion] Based on the influence mechanism of rural public space characteristics on place attachment, this research proposes four optimization strategies for rural public spaces. 1) Construct an elderly-friendly spatial network to promote neighborhood social interaction. Specifically, we should create a barrier-free rural public space network integrated with “memory anchor points” to encourage left-behind elderly residents to spontaneously organize traditional festival activities and demonstrations of traditional skills. This approach transforms public spaces into dual carriers of neighborhood collaboration and cultural activities, enhances the participation of the left-behind elderly in activities, and thereby strengthens their sense of place dependence. 2) Safeguard carriers of local memory to reinforce historical identity and emotional connection. Specifically, we should restore and revitalize traditional spiritual and cultural spaces by converting historical memories into perceptible cultural narratives through methods such as displaying old photographs, exhibiting agricultural tools, and screening videos, and at the same time establish rural color management guidelines to preserve the authenticity of the rural human settlement environment. 3) Rationalize control of building density to reduce interference from modern elements. Specifically, we should optimize the architectural layout around public spaces to form a hierarchical transition between “architecture − space − nature”, and appropriately regulate the placement and quantity of modern facilities such as billboards and signages to ensure their style harmonizes with the surrounding environment, thereby minimizing the impact of modern elements on the daily lives and production activities of left-behind elderly residents. 4) Enhance ecological comfort to strengthen the foundation for human − landscape interaction. Specifically, we should focus on increasing green coverage rates to improve the microclimate environment in rural areas and enhance the ecological comfort of public spaces. In addition, we should create diversified elderly-friendly scenarios incorporating natural elements such as water systems and vegetable gardens to foster continuous interaction between left-behind elderly residents and the natural environment. The results of the research can provide scientific guidelines and case studies for building an age-friendly rural human settlement environment.

[Objective] China’s urbanization has entered a new phase of connotative development. The concept of “People’s City” is driving the transformation of urban recreational green space (URGS) planning towards “human-oriented demands”. In the post-pandemic era, residents’ leisure behaviors have shown characteristics such as proximity, healthiness, and diversity. AI technology has further given rise to differentiated recreational demands. The current URGS layout is confronted with shortcomings such as emphasizing indicators over demand response in planning, insufficient functional integration, structural imbalance in services, and low system integration. This research, through systematic review and theoretical prospect, innovatively constructs a “theoretical framework for URGS planning that responds to human-oriented demands”, breaking through the limitations of traditional static adaptation, promoting the dynamic coupling of URGS with people’s lifestyle, and supporting the modern governance goals of precision, refinement, depth, intelligence, and excellence. This research may provide theoretical support for resolving the structural mismatch contradiction between URGS layout and diversified demands.

[Methods] The China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) and Web of Science Core Collection are taken as data sources, journal article is determined as literature type, and the retrieval time is set from January 1st 2000 to December 31th 2024 based on the characteristics of the publication period. The advanced search formula for the subject terms of Chinese AND English literature is TS=(“recreation*” OR “leisure” OR “tour*” OR “entertain*”) AND (“green space*” OR “park*”) AND (“layout” OR “planning” OR “design*”). After eliminating the items irrelevant to the research topic, 687 Chinese and 345 English literature articles are ultimately selected as the research object. CiteSpace 6.2.R6 is utilized to conduct visual analysis of the selected articles, supplemented by traditional literature review methods and inductive comparative analysis. This approach systematically examines the evolutionary stages, research hotspots, and trend characteristics of URGS layout research, aiming to advance a forward-looking layout framework.

[Results] 1) Evolutionary stages: Research on URGS layout in China has progressed from planning control to spatial governance. From 2000 to 2009, it was the period of rough demand identification – initial exploration, with more attention paid to the configuration of recreational functions and scale estimation around the supply side. From 2010 to 2016, it was the period of coarse demand response – fluctuating growth, promoting the transformation of China’s URGS layout towards “social equity – demand response”. From 2017 to 2024, it was the period of refined and rapid development in demand, catering to diverse recreational demands. 2) Research hotspots: Common dimensions encompass human-oriented planning and governance, demand-differentiated green space provision, and recreational experience – health co-benefits. However, Chinese literature research prioritizes macro-level planning and supply-side refinement, while English literature emphasizes meso & micro-scale empirical studies and demand-side drivers. 3) Development trends: While both Chinese and English research converge on green space layout based on socio-spatial and spatiotemporal behavioral differentiation for demand identification, their divergences persist in primary research focus, depth of interdisciplinary integration, and intensity of policy-coupling. 4) Theoretical system: A “theoretical system framework for URGS layout that responds to human-oriented demands” has been constructed, covering a multi-dimensional hierarchical classification system based on the “time – space – demand” principle; based on the principle of “differential justice”, the traditional classification of green spaces has been broken and a “recreational circle” layout system adapting to urban functional spaces has been constructed; an evaluation-optimization system employing digital intelligence technologies for supply-demand matching has been constructed to advance optimally regulated connotative development.

[Conclusion] This research aims to address systemic issues — including extensive URGS system development, insufficient functional integration, low supply – demand matching efficiency, and inadequate open sharing mechanisms — by proposing holistic solutions with reference value for future urban recreational space planning, policy-making, and research. 1) Spatial planning dimension: Promote the statutory institutionalization and systematization of URGS-specific planning, clarify its position within the territorial spatial planning framework, strengthen horizontal coordination and vertical implementation, and guide high-quality development of diversified recreational green spaces. 2) Policy orientation dimension: Focus on diverse public needs to deepen the connotation of “human-oriented demands”. Establish a precision-tailored methodological framework for supply – demand matching, creating a synergistic governance model combining “top-down guidance” and “bottom-up participation” to operationalize differential justice in spatial allocation. 3) Academic research dimension: Construct a three-dimensional theoretical framework integrating recreational systems with resource distribution patterns, spatial ring characteristics and urban functional layouts. This research significantly enhances the precision and depth of population demand identification, considers behavioral traits and visitation preferences, and develops a demand-driven URGS layout adaptation model responsive to distinct urban functional spatial requirements. The accuracy and depth of crowd demand identification have been enhanced, taking into account behavioral characteristics and access preferences. Furthermore, an URGS layout adaptation mode driven by the demands of different urban functional spaces is proposed. This research responds to the people’s demand for a better life and is of great significance for promoting the transformation of URGS layout to a refined supply that responds to the differences in group demands, resolving the structural mismatch contradiction between URGS layout and diverse recreational demands, and ultimately achieving the dual goals of a sense of gain and happiness in green well-being.

[Objective] Urban lake wetlands possess significant regulatory functions and environmental benefits for regional environments. A synergistic layout of water and green spaces can enhance their temperature and humidity effects. In order to maximize the regional environmental effects of urban lake wetlands, it is of great practical significance for the planning and protection of the built environment of urban lake wetlands to strengthen and optimize the construction of green spaces in the surrounding built environment, and to explore the coupling relationship between the morphological composition and layout structure of green spaces in the built environment and the temperature and humidity effects of urban lake wetlands.

[Methods] This research takes Lingjiao Lake and its surrounding 300 m green spaces in the built environment within the main urban area of Wuhan as the research area, which is characterized by dense buildings and a complex composition of the built environment, including green spaces, plazas, commercial areas, and residential zones. In this research, the diurnal air temperature and relative humidity in July 2024 are measured as indicators. Using a combination of transect-based quantitative measurements and land use regression (LUR) models, a comprehensive assessment and data statistics and analysis are conducted to systematically investigate the spatio-temporal characteristics of air temperature and relative humidity effect field of urban lake wetlands.

[Results] This research comprehensively analyzes the factors influencing air temperature and relative humidity in the built environment surrounding urban lake wetlands, in combination with LUR model. The results indicate that: 1) The LUR model based on key influencing variables consists of water area, surrounding green space and built environment factors within a 300 m buffer zone, as well as relevant meteorological factors, and indicators of air temperature and relative humidity are successfully established, with the adjusted R ² of 0.607 and 0.779 for air temperature and relative humidity, respectively, and the adjusted LOOCV R ² of 0.763 and 0.957, respectively. Based on the correlation analysis of LUR model variables, the prediction variables for air temperature are ρ _T100, ρ _T25, D _R, H _B25, and I _{L A}, while ρ _T50, ρ _B25, P _W25, I _{L A}, D _B, and T for relative humidity. 2) The coupling of urban lakes and wetlands with surrounding green spaces has a significant effect on improving temperature and humidity. For air temperature, the combined blue-green effect of the 300 m buffer zone is 0.58 ℃, with a decrease of 0.19 ℃ every 100 m; for relative humidity, the combined blue-green effect of the 300 m buffer zone is 2.11%, with a 0.70% increase in humidity every 100 m. 3) The key influencing factors of air temperature and relative humidity in different buffer zones and surrounding green spaces vary significantly. Within a 50 m buffer zone, ρ _T is the only variable positively correlated with air temperature; regarding relative humidity, the influencing variables are ρ _T, P _W, and P _G. Within a 100 m buffer zone, ρ _B has a significant impact on air temperature, while ρ _T is the most significant variable affecting air temperature and relative humidity; regarding relative humidity, the significant influencing variables include P _W, distance from traffic road (D _R), and ρ _T. Within the buffer zones of 200 m and 300 m, ρ _B, ρ _T, and F _SV (sky view factor) have significant effects on air temperature and relative humidity. In summary, the lower the traffic density, the higher the green space canopy density, and the larger the leaf area index, the more significant the synergistic cooling effect of blue-green space.

[Conclusion] This research, from the perspective of blue-green synergy, examines how urban built environment and land use factors affect temperature and humidity in terms of mechanism, intensity, and scope. Based on the LUR model consisting of blue-green factors, built environment factors, and meteorological factors, the research summarizes the spatio-temporal characteristics of the temperature and humidity effect field of urban lake wetlands, and reveals the associated effects of blue and green spaces and their physical-level spatial interactions, providing support for enhancing the environmental effects of urban lake wetlands. Based on the findings, the following strategies for improving the temperature and humidity regulation of urban blue-green space systems are proposed as follows. 1) Control the proportion of transportation infrastructure around urban water bodies; keep main roads at least 60 m away from water spaces to maximize the regulatory function of blue-green spaces. 2) Protect urban blue lines, green lines, and blue-green space effect lines; limit building density to approximately 0.35 within a 300 m buffer zone. 3) Select plant communities with high leaf area index (I _LA > 2.0), canopy density (ρ _C > 0.77), and large crown width for green spaces around lakes, optimizing green space structures and increasing the proportion of multi-layered vegetation.

[Objective] With the rapid advancement of urbanization and the rising expectations of citizens for high-quality living environments, the Beijing Municipal People’s Government officially promulgated the Special Plan for Beijing Garden City (2023−2035) in May 2024, in response to these emerging needs. This comprehensive urban planning initiative outlines the strategic objective of achieving “overall colorization” centered around the development and enhancement of urban parks. The policy emphasizes the central role of flowers in landscape construction, ecological restoration, and promoting livable, beautiful, and culturally vibrant urban habitats. Beyond their ecological and visual value, flowers also serve as cultural symbols and contribute to residents’ emotional well-being. However, the effectiveness of floral landscape construction depends heavily on public perception, which influences the usage of these green spaces. This research investigates public perceptions of floral landscapes in urban parks across the central urban area of Beijing, with a view to identifying key themes, species, and perception patterns across different park types, thereby offering practical insights for improving landscape planning and supporting the broader goals of garden city development.

[Method] Taking 78 urban parks in the central urban area of Beijing as the research objects, this research uses Python to collect annual reviews for each park from dianping.com in 2023, yielding 13,657 valid entries, and a combination of content analysis (CA), latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) topic modeling and importance − performance analysis (IPA) is employed to examine and evaluate public perceptions of floral landscapes in urban parks across Beijing. The specific process involves the following steps: Constructing a customized lexicon and segmenting the review data; establishing a flower plant perception corpus and performing CA and word frequency analysis to assess the overall perception of flower plants; applying the LDA model to extract thematic clusters and corresponding keywords, and summarizing the perception themes in alignment with the Garden City planning framework; evaluating the importance and satisfaction levels of the identified perception themes using the IPA method; and finally, categorizing and discussing the findings to propose strategies for enhancing public perception of floral landscapes.

[Result] A list of the top 15 flower plant species based on public perception is compiled, and four flower perception themes are identified. Significant differences are found in public perceptions across different park types. 1) In terms of overall perception, there are considerable differences in the degree of public perception and spatial distribution among various types of parks. Time patterns are clearly defined, with perception levels peaking primarily between March and May and September and November. A wide variety of flower species are employed, with lotus (2,250 mentions), peach blossom (1,376 mentions), and cherry blossom (1,335 mentions) being the most prominently perceived by the public. Additionally, 17 parks host flower-related cultural activities. 2) In terms of perception themes, the multiple functions of flower experiences (63%) are most prominent, followed by the aesthetic use of flower species (19%), the livelihood benefits of floral resources (14%), and the cultural value of floral attractions (4%). Public perception is more focused on functional aspects, such as photography and outings, while cultural values receive less attention. Among the three park types, the aesthetic use of flower species (22%) ranks second in historical parks, but is low in comprehensive and community parks, showing a negative correlation with livelihood benefits. In comprehensive parks, the multiple functions of flower experiences (68%) are more prominent, whereas in community parks, the livelihood benefits of floral resources (39%) are most noticeable. 3) In terms of the perception importance − satisfaction performance, advantageous flowers vary by park type, and the perception performance of various flower plant species is generally good. Lotus and chrysanthemums in historical parks are highly satisfactory, sunflowers in comprehensive parks are recognized, while chinese rose and peach blossom in community parks need to be upgraded. Besides, some flowers are highly rated while failing to attract enough attention, and limited resources need to be optimized. The perception theme performance of different types of parks varies greatly. The perception theme performance of historical famous parks is generally high. For comprehensive parks, the “multiple functions of flower experiences” stand out (68%), but the perception satisfaction is relatively low and in urgent need of enhancement. The overall satisfaction of each perception theme in community parks is relatively low.

[Conclusion] This research clarifies the primary species, thematic dimensions, and public performance evaluations related to floral landscapes across different types of urban parks in Beijing. It demonstrates that floral landscape design must be tailored to park functions, public usage patterns, and seasonal cycles to enhance user satisfaction and fulfill the goals of the Beijing Garden City initiative. The proposed perception evaluation model, not only aids local government and planners in refining floral landscape strategies but also provides a scalable methodological framework for evaluating similar projects in other cities pursuing green and livable urban transformations. Moreover, by highlighting gaps in satisfaction and underutilized floral resources, this research offers targeted recommendations for improving biodiversity, cultural engagement, and ecological value in urban landscape planning.

[Objective] The sense of smell is of vital importance to humans. Olfactory landscapes have a remarkable influence on human physiology, behaviors, and emotions. Nature reserves boast relatively unique types of scents, with their characteristic mechanisms differing from those of urban olfactory landscapes. However, current research on olfactory landscapes mainly centers around cities and gardens. The aim of this research is to clarify the elements of olfactory landscapes in the built environment of nature reserves and their influence mechanisms on human perception, so as to: 1) construct a classification system for the olfactory landscapes in the Jiuzhaigou World Natural Heritage Site; 2) explore the action paths of the characteristics of different types of olfactory landscapes on tourists’ perception; 3) provide new evidence for the knowledge system through the evidence of olfactory landscape walks.

[Methods] This research investigates olfactory landscapes in the Jiuzhaigou World Natural Heritage Site, focusing on how odors affect visitors’ perceptions of the environment. The reserve, recognized for its rich biodiversity and natural beauty, is studied through an olfactory walking survey, where eight key olfactory areas are identified. Data is collected from 100 healthy participants via interviews and questionnaires conducted between July 27–29, 2022. The participants, aged from under 18 to over 60, are asked to identify odors and rate their perceptions of the environment based on 12 sensory indicators such as familiarity, sweetness, and naturalness. Interviews help categorize odors into various types, such as human-driven, facility-driven, water-driven, plant-driven, and soil-driven odors. Statistical analysis, conducted in Excel and SPSS, focuses on the frequency of odor categories, the mean sensory ratings, and the correlations between olfactory characteristics and perceptions. The research adopts Spearman partial correlation to analyze relationships while adjusting for other factors. The goal is to explore how different elements of olfactory landscapes influence visitors’ experiences, in hope of providing valuable insights into the role of smell in enhancing natural tourism and environmental design.

[Results] Respondents identify odors at eight sampling sites, which are categorized into four types of olfactory landscapes based on the dominant smells. 1) Human-dominated landscape: Site 7 has a 50.00% probability of odor manifestation (POM), dominated by incense from Tibetan Buddhist prayers. 2) Facility-dominated landscape: Site 3, with a POM of 47.06%, has wood smells from pavilions and boardwalks. 3) Water & air-dominated landscape: At sites 2 and 5, the odor is influenced by damp and cool characteristics of waterfalls, with POMs of 50.00% and 35.90%, respectively. 4) Plant-dominated landscape: Sites 1, 4, 6, and 8 have vegetation-based odors. Site 1 is dominated by grass with a POM of 36.84%, while the others have tree-dominant smells, with POMs ranging from 20.00% to 57.15%. The mean scores for perceptual evaluations and odor characteristics reveal the following: 1) Human-dominated and water & air-dominated landscapes score the highest in liking, relaxation, and satisfaction, ranking first and second, respectively; 2) plant-dominated landscapes rank lowest in satisfaction; 3) facility-dominated landscapes score lowest in liking and relaxation. In terms of odor characteristics: 1) Human-dominated landscapes excel in familiarity, compatibility, sweetness, intensity, and uniqueness; 2) water & air-dominated landscapes score highest in naturalness, freshness, diffusion, exposure frequency, and persistence; 3) plant-dominated landscapes score highest in recognition and mixing; 4) facility-dominated landscapes rank lowest in compatibility, freshness, uniqueness, and diffusion. Further analysis is conducted to explore how the characteristics of the olfactory landscapes influence perceptual evaluations: 1) Human-dominated landscapes: Familiarity is strongly positively correlated with relaxation (p < 0.01), with no significant correlations found for other indicators; 2) Facility-dominated landscapes: Compatibility and naturalness are positively correlated with liking (p < 0.05) and relaxation (p < 0.01), and sweetness, naturalness, and mixing are positively correlated with liking; 3) water & air-dominated landscapes: Duration is positively correlated with liking, while familiarity and duration are negatively correlated with satisfaction; 4) plant-dominated odor: Compatibility, uniqueness, and exposure frequency are positively correlated with liking, while compatibility, naturalness, uniqueness, diffusion, and persistence are correlated with relaxation.

[Conclusion] Understanding and revealing the current situation of olfactory landscapes in World Natural Heritage Sites is of great theoretical and practical significance for improving environmental quality and tourism experience. Based on on-site investigations and tourist perception evaluations, this research establishes a classification framework system for the scent landscapes in Jiuzhaigou and analyzes in detail the differences in elemental characteristics and perception evaluations of four types of olfactory landscapes. The research finds that: 1) For human-dominated olfactory landscapes, there is only a highly significant positive correlation between familiarity and relaxation, and there is no significant correlation among the three perception evaluation indicators; 2) facility-dominated olfactory landscapes are below the average level in all perception evaluation indicators and receive the most negative ratings; 3) water & air-dominated olfactory landscapes usually receive high perception ratings, and exceed the average level in all evaluation indicators; 4) plant-dominated olfactory landscapes stand out in relaxation ratings, with relaxation being related to its degree of matching, naturalness, uniqueness, diffusivity, exposure frequency, persistence, and degree of mixing. The same elemental characteristics have significant differences in the degree of influence and priority order on perception evaluations in different types of olfactory landscapes. The research results further emphasize the unique role of aroma in creating spiritual value and the significant influence of plant scents on relaxation experience.

[Objective] The theory of natural aesthetics emphasizes the harmonious coexistence between humans and nature, focusing on the aesthetic value and ecological significance of the natural environment. This aligns closely with the goals of landscape design for urban waterfront spaces. As a critical intersection between urban and natural environments, urban waterfront spaces must not only fulfill functional requirements but also prioritize the natural experience, embodying natural aesthetics to enhance people’s aesthetic enjoyment. Based on the theory of natural aesthetics, this research takes urban waterfront spaces as the research object, focusing on public perception of the naturalness of autumn landscapes. The research aims to explore evaluation methods for naturalness perception, in hope of providing theoretical support for the planning and design of autumn landscapes in urban waterfront spaces. The research seeks to clarify the relationship between naturalness perception and ecological perception, quantitatively assess perceived naturalness, and identify key indicators influencing public perception of the naturalness of autumn landscapes in urban waterfront spaces.

[Methods] This research focuses on the Huangpu River waterfront space as the research subject. The literature review method is initially used to screen indicators influencing naturalness perception. A questionnaire survey combined with real-scene photographs is conducted to gather public opinions on the influence of different landscape elements on naturalness perception tendencies. The evaluation results of naturalness perception in typical sample sites are used as research support. Correlation analysis and stepwise regression analysis are employed to determine the characteristics and extent of influence of landscape elements on public naturalness perception. First, the literature review method is used to preliminarily screen factors influencing the perceived naturalness. Through literature research and expert scoring, 21 landscape element characteristics across three categories that might influence public naturalness perception of autumn landscapes in urban waterfront spaces are identified. These elements include vegetation types, water characteristics, and artificial structures, covering visual, ecological, and functional dimensions. Second, a questionnaire survey is conducted to score typical sample sites, with the mean method adopted to calculate perceived naturalness for representative photographs of each site. The questionnaire incorporates public ratings of the naturalness of landscapes and subjective descriptions of impressions, aiming to capture public tendencies toward naturalness perception of autumn waterfront landscapes. Simultaneously, subjective tendencies of naturalness perception are surveyed to compare subjective impressions with objective statistical results, ensuring comprehensive and accurate data. Finally, the landscape elements in representative photographs of typical sample sites are identified and quantified, and regression analysis is performed to develop a well-fitted naturalness perception regression model. Through correlation analysis and stepwise regression analysis, the influence of each landscape element on public naturalness perception and its significance are determined.

[Results] The research finds that the most significant indicator promoting public naturalness perception is the proportion of deciduous tree (PDT). When this element is in the medium range, perceived naturalness significantly increases. The most significant indicator weakening public naturalness perception is the proportion of bare wall (PBW), as perceived naturalness decreases with its increase. Other indicators that promote naturalness perception include the proportion of yellow colored tree (PYCT) in the lower range, the proportion of colored shrubs and grass (PCSG) in the medium range, the PDT in the higher range, the proportion of aquatic plant, and the overall proportion of plants (PP). The research identifies seven key indicators directly influencing naturalness perception. Among them, the PDT has the most significant positive influence on perceived naturalness, increasing it by 0.704. In contrast, the PBW has the most notable negative influence, with a regression coefficient of −4.400, causing perceived naturalness to decrease as it increases. These findings provide a scientific basis for the design of autumn landscapes in urban waterfront spaces, helping designers better balance natural and artificial elements to enhance public natural experiences.

[Conclusion] Based on the quantitative analysis of naturalness perception, design strategies can be optimized to promote public naturalness perception, providing theoretical and technical support for the design of autumn landscapes in urban waterfront spaces. This contributes to achieving the goal of harmonious coexistence between humans and nature in landscape design. However, this research is based on empirical research conducted in the central urban section of the waterfront space of the Huangpu River in Shanghai, a highly urbanized area with distinct regional characteristics in vegetation and artificial elements. Therefore, the conclusions may not be universally applicable to all urban waterfront spaces. Additionally, the naturalness perception evaluation system constructed in this research primarily focuses on visual perception, without considering other sensory factors such as natural scents and sounds. Natural elements like floral fragrances, earthy smells, bird songs, and the sound of flowing water are also integral to natural aesthetics. Future research may incorporate multi-sensory analysis methods to build a more comprehensive naturalness perception evaluation system, and may expand the sample scope to include more types of urban waterfront spaces to validate and extend the conclusions of this research. Furthermore, combining psychological experiments and in-depth interviews may help explore the emotional experiences and psychological needs of the public in natural landscapes, providing more human-centered guidance for landscape design.

[Objective] In the context of urban regeneration, cities in the arid region of northwest China, constrained by limited water and land resources, are progressively implementing the ecological development of inefficient urban lands as an important approach to enhance urban resource utilization efficiency and facilitate the transformation of urban green spaces. Based on existing assessment methods that use ecological value as the criterion, this research proposes the incorporation of a social demand perspective into the priority assessment for ecological construction on inefficient urban lands, thereby clarifying the appropriate scale and priority of such construction and reinforcing the necessity and feasibility of the assessment outcomes.

[Methods] Taking the main urban area of Hami City in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region as the research object, a priority assessment framework for ecological construction on inefficient urban lands in cities in the arid region of northwest China based on the both perspectives of ecological value and social demand. Considering the spatial habitat requirements of characteristic flora and fauna in cities in the arid region of northwest China, the InVEST and MSPA model is employed to identify the ecological security pattern. The ecological value of inefficient urban lands is then assessed based on the analysis of ecological sources, ecological corridors, and habitat quality. Meanwhile, by integrating the needs of multiple stakeholders, three indicators — construction feasibility, distribution evenness, and green space demand — are selected to evaluate the social demand for ecological construction on inefficient urban lands. Finally, the assessment outcomes from the both perspectives are overlaid, categorizing the inefficient urban lands into five priority levels: highest, high, medium, relatively low, and lowest.

[Results] The integrated assessment from the perspectives of ecological value and social demand indicates that the area ratios of inefficient urban lands designated for ecological construction with the highest, high, medium, relatively low, and lowest priorities are 1∶1.8∶0.8∶4∶2.2. Notably, the inefficient urban lands with relatively low and lowest priorities occupy the largest area, which suggests that most inefficient urban lands in Hami’s main urban area are not suitable for immediate ecological construction. Specifically, a total of 75 sites with the highest (Level I) and high (Level II) priorities — areas where ecological construction should be prioritized — account for 28.54% of the total area of inefficient urban lands, and these sites are generally located within the radiation range of ecological sources as identified by the ecological security pattern assessment, free from interference by large-scale infrastructure. In contrast, there are 14 sites (7.84% of the total area) classified as sites with medium priority (Level III), and 176 sites (accounting for 63.62% of the area of inefficient urban lands) categorized as sites with relatively low (Level IV) or lowest (Level V) priority, which are mainly distributed along the urban periphery and in areas with complex land ownership matters. According to the zoning results of the research area, the Liyuan and Xihe districts are identified as key areas for the ecological construction on inefficient urban lands, as sites with the highest or high priority in these areas constitute over 30% of the total area of inefficient urban lands. In areas such as Donghe District, Tiebei District, and Western New District, constrained by the synergies between ecological and social perspectives, sites with the highest or high priority comprise over 17% of the total area of inefficient urban lands, indicating a relatively higher priority for ecological transformation of inefficient urban lands. Meanwhile, the Huicheng and Tienan areas, with a total area of inefficient urban lands of less than 10 hm², are not suitable for large-scale ecological construction.

[Conclusion] The main urban area of Hami City is at a stage where both the quality enhancement and transformation of existing stock and the structural adjustment of new increments are concurrently prioritized. The assessment of inefficient urban lands is subject to the dynamic, long-term adjustments influenced by the maturity of urban construction. Notably, the assessment results for the priority of ecological construction on inefficient urban lands differ significantly among the ecological value, social demand, and composite perspectives. The inclusion of social demand indicators reduces the assigned priorities for ecological construction in most districts within the research area, thereby preventing excessive ecological construction on inefficient urban lands that could lead to the consumption of water and land resources. The driving factors for ecological construction on inefficient urban lands in various districts are primarily categorized into four types: ecological − social composite drive, ecological drive, social drive, and constraint-dominated drive. Based on the assessment outcomes, this research proposes five regeneration strategies — ecological mode, functional mode, natural mode, collaborative mode, and reserved mode — for the different priority levels of ecological construction on inefficient urban lands in Hami’s main urban area, with the aim of promoting the practical implementation of ecological construction on inefficient urban lands in cities in the arid region of northwest China and providing feasible theoretical support for urban regeneration initiatives.