Owing to global challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, increasing world population, and global health, a transformation of the global food system and a dietary shift towards a sustainable and healthy diet are needed. Various studies have analyzed the environmental and health impacts of global and regional food systems (Vermeulen et al., 2012; Davis et al., 2016; Tilman et al., 2017; Springmann et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2018; IPCC, 2019; Willett et al., 2019; Ritchie et al., 2022; Wood et al., 2023) and revealed that people need to eat more sustainably to avoid further jeopardizing overall food security and achieve a resilient food system. Incorporating sustainable considerations alongside health aspects into food-based dietary guidelines (FBDGs), which offer recommendations for balanced nutrition to the population, could be pivotal in shifting eating habits towards sustainability.

Given that food plays a significant role in shaping meaning and identity, food culture profoundly influences dietary patterns (Hedegaard, 2016). Food culture encompasses “the uses, traditions, practices, artifacts, structures, norms, situations, and symbols, as well as the context and the environment in which food is formed, evolving, becoming, and being” (Amilien and Notaker, 2018). Cultural analysis can significantly contribute to understanding the factors that influence dietary patterns (Hedegaard, 2016). Therefore, considering a cultural viewpoint is vital for promoting a dietary shift. The food cultures in Asia and Europe exhibit significant differences, necessitating distinct approaches to promote a shift towards sustainable nutrition. Moreover, a country-specific approach is essential owing to variations in nutrition-related situations across different countries. Some countries struggle with malnutrition and hunger, while others contend with overnutrition and nutrition-related diseases such as chronic heart diseases, diabetes, and obesity, or face challenges on both fronts. Additionally, the environmental impact of the food system varies by region (Breidenassel et al., 2022) and must also be considered. This paper aims to compare dietary recommendations and current diets in China and Germany exemplary for Asia and Europe regarding sustainable nutrition and the environmental impact of dietary shifts.

FBDGs offer recommendations to policymakers, health professionals, and consumers regarding the types and quantities of foods to consume to promote and sustain health (Schäfer et al., 2021). The guidelines are characterized as evidence-based dietary recommendations by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO), with the objective of promoting the overall nutritional well-being and health of the population while mitigating disease risks. In this regard, in addition to a balanced diet, physical activities, smoking, and alcohol consumption are also considered components that determine a healthy lifestyle. Moreover, FBDGs should be appropriately designed for each country (WHO, 1998).

As outlined in Table 1, the WHO suggests caloric energy intake based on calorie consumption. It includes fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, and whole grains as essential components of a healthy diet. Additionally, the WHO recommends consuming 400 g/d of fruits and vegetables while reducing the intake of free sugars, sodium, and fats, particularly saturated and trans fats (WHO, 2020). Animal-based foods such as meat and milk products are not mentioned in the WHO fact sheet on a healthy diet. The only reference to sustainability is the recommendation to consume seasonal fruits and vegetables. The focus seems to be on preventing non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as diabetes and obesity.

The planetary health diet proposed by the EAT-Lancet Commission (Willett et al., 2019) aims to promote healthy individuals and a healthy planet. It focuses on sustainability, health, and well-being, by considering the environmental impact of food production, including greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and freshwater use. Furthermore, there is a general emphasis on a plant-based diet, with meat and dairy occupying considerably smaller proportions. Additionally, the recommendations encompass alternatives for a dairy-free or strictly vegetarian dietary lifestyle (Table 1). From a technical standpoint, the planetary health diet does not fit the definition of FBDGs outlined in a joint FAO/WHO report (WHO, 1998), as it does not cover non-food-related aspects of a healthy lifestyle (Breidenassel et al., 2022). However, the diet was originally conceived as a framework for developing national FBDGs (Willett et al., 2019). Despite this discrepancy, the planetary health diet features specific recommendations and quantities regarding food groups. The recommended daily uptakes of different food groups of the planetary health diet are depicted in Table 1. The recommended intake ranges are 0-28 g/d for meat (pork, beef, and lamb), 0-58 g/d for poultry, and 0-100 g/d for fish. Additionally, it is recommended to consume 0-25 g/d of eggs and 0-500 g/d of milk equivalents.

The categorization of food groups in the planetary health diet was critically evaluated on a global scale, as the ecological footprints of these groups may vary depending on the regional production. For instance, GHG emissions associated with milk are lower in Europe, at 1.4 kg CO₂-eq per kilogram of milk, than in regions such as West Asia and Africa, where GHG emissions range from 4.1 to 6.7 kg CO₂-eq per kilogram of milk (Breidenassel et al., 2022).

An overview of the relevant dietary guidelines in China and Germany is also provided in Table 1.

The cost of a healthy diet in China was estimated at 2.96 USD, and 10.9% (153.90 million persons) of the Chinese population were unable to afford a healthy diet in 2021 (FAOSTAT, 2023). This aligns with the report by Yin et al. (2023), who compared retail prices of daily food items with a balanced diet according to dietary guidelines and concluded that following a healthy diet was challenging for at least 182.85 million low-income households in China. In 2021, the estimated cost of a healthy diet in Germany was 3.08 USD, with only 0.2% (0.20 million persons) of the population unable to afford it (FAOSTAT, 2023). A comparison of the affordability of 7 isocaloric diets in Germany showed that food prices influence healthy food choices. Although a freshly cooked healthy vegetarian diet is less expensive than the unhealthy highly processed standard omnivore diet, it was concluded that the minimum wage and financial support were not sufficient for maintaining a healthy diet in Germany (Kabisch et al., 2021). Although the majority can afford a healthy diet in both China and Germany, the current average diets may not necessarily align with the Chinese and German FBDGs.

China is a large country with significant variations in demographics, economic levels, and dietary patterns (Li et al., 2020). Additionally, the population is unevenly distributed. Song et al. (2019) estimated that 94.0% of China’s total population resided east of the so-called Hu Huanyong Line, occupying only 36.0% of China’s total territory. Additionally, sharp distinctions existed between rural and urban areas, as well as between northern and southern provinces or autonomous regions or municipalities. Li et al. (2020) estimated the dietary patterns across 31 provinces or autonomous regions or municipalities in China using data from the Statistical Yearbook of the Chinese Household Survey 2015-2016. The dietary patterns differentiated between 16 southern and 15 northern provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities separated by the Qinling-Huaihe Line. By comparing dietary habits in rural and urban areas of southern and northern China, Li et al. (2020) found that disparities in diet between urban and rural households are more pronounced in the north than in the south. For all of China, they estimated an annual per-capita food consumption of 269-419 kg/a. According to Wu et al. (2022), among the 31 provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities of China, Xizang Autonomous Region and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region exhibited higher grain consumption, while Guangdong Province, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, and Sichuan Province exhibited higher meat consumption. Tianjin Municipality, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and Anhui Province showed generally higher food consumption, particularly fruits, resulting in the highest nutrient quality among all 31 provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities. Conversely, Qinghai Province, Guizhou Province, and Xizang Autonomous Region had the lowest nutrient quality (Wu et al., 2022).

A comparison of actual individual diets based on the China Health and Nutrition Survey from 2011 with a balanced dietary pattern according to the 2016 Chinese Dietary Guidelines revealed a significant overconsumption of refined cereal, meat, and cooking oil. On average, 175.0% more meat, 71.0% more refined cereal, and 43.0% more cooking oil than recommended were consumed (He et al., 2019). This was accompanied by a change in food preparation methods from boiling and steaming to less healthier methods such as deep-frying and frying (Popkin, 2014). In addition, the uptake of milk and dairy products was 93.0% lower than the recommendation for a healthy diet, while coarse grains and pulses were 88.0% lower, nuts 86.0% lower, fruits 80.0% lower, tubers 70.0% lower, and seafood 71.0% lower (He et al., 2019). On average, the total food supply, especially the consumption of animal-based foods, increased significantly between 1996 and 2010, surpassing the recommended levels (Li et al., 2016). This aligns with the findings of Huang et al. (2021), who noted change in the dietary patterns of Chinese adults between 1982 and 2012 based on national nutrition surveys. This change in dietary patterns was attributed to economic growth and urbanization (Yu et al., 2016). Between 1980 and 2023, the urban share of the population increased from 19.0% to 66.0% in China (Textor, 2024). The dietary shift is characterized by a decreased intake of cereals and vegetables and an increased consumption of animal-based foods, particularly pork, resulting in the intake of salt and cooking oil that exceed nutritional recommendations. While a previous study observed a slight increase in the consumption of eggs, fish, and dairy products, their consumption levels remained low (Huang et al., 2021). Concomitant with increasing urbanization, meat consumption quadrupled between 1975 and 2015 (Wu et al., 2022). To date, pork is the most consumed meat source, accounting for 73.4% of the total meat consumption in China (Su et al., 2022).

Wu et al. (2022) compared the actual dietary patterns in rural and urban areas in China from 2019 with the Chinese FBDGs, the planetary health diet, and dietary recommendations by the WHO. They concluded that environmental and nutritional differences between rural and urban areas have been decreasing since 2000, mainly owing to reduced grain consumption in rural areas. Between 1980 and 2019, the intake of grains and vegetables in rural areas decreased, while the intake of fruits, pork, poultry, eggs, and milk increased. Moreover, the authors stated that in both rural and urban areas in China, a decrease in grain and meat consumption and an increase in the consumption of fruits, vegetables, and aquatic products are necessary to align with national and international recommendations. In 2019, the dietary habits in both rural and urban areas in China were considered rather similar to the planetary health diet (Wu et al., 2022).

Furthermore, health surveys have shown that between 1982 and 2012, while nutritional deficiencies and corresponding diseases declined, overweight increased from 16.4% to 30.1%, and obesity increased from 3.6% to 11.9% (Huang et al., 2021). In a cross-sectional study involving employees from two major enterprises in central China belonging to the high-risk population groups for NCDs (such as daily smokers, individuals with high blood pressure, and individuals with elevated blood cholesterol), researchers assessed the deviation of their actual diet from the dietary guidelines recommended by the Chinese Dietary Guidelines of 2016. The study revealed that even among high-risk population groups, adhering to the recommended diet was difficult. The findings underscored the necessity for targeted nutrition education aimed at high-risk population groups to prevent NCDs (Jiang et al., 2022).

A change in dietary patterns has also been observed in Germany. According to the 13^th DGE-Nutrition Report (DGE, 2016), between the 1950s and 2014 (or 2015), the consumption of vegetables, glucose, cheese, and poultry meat increased in Germany, whereas the consumption of rye, potatoes, fresh fruits, alcohol, and vegetable fats decreased. The uptake of fresh dairy products, meat, and butter was relatively stable. In recent years, slightly more cereals (other than rye) and eggs and fewer citrus fruits (such as oranges) and fish have been eaten. The consumption of mineral water, coffee, and tea has increased, while the consumption of fruit and vegetable juices and nectars has decreased. Regarding micronutrient supply, the German population is not adequately supplied with vitamin D and iodine. In 2015, while 85.0% of the German adult population was adequately supplied with folate, only 30.0% had an adequate iodine intake. In contrast, the sodium intake was, on average, too high for more than 90.0% of the German adult population. Moreover, approximately 10.0% and 1.1% of the German population followed vegetarian and vegan diets, respectively, in 2015.

In addition, overweight and obesity rates are on the rise. In 2013, 59.0% of the male and 37.0% of the female population aged 18-64 years old were overweight or obese, while among older adults (65 years old and above), 69.9% of men and 57.5% of women were overweight or obese (DGE, 2016).

The German National Nutrition Survey II during 2005-2007 showed that dietary habits differed depending on age, gender, and socioeconomic status (SES). Generally, cereal consumption was too low, especially for women, who consumed slightly less than three-quarters of the recommended amount. Both men and women consumed approximately half of the recommended intake of vegetables (400 g/d). Men’s consumption of milk, dairy products, and cheese aligned with the German FBDGs on average, while women consumed slightly less than the recommendation. Men exceeded the recommended meat intake (300-600 g/week), while women fell within the upper range of the recommendations. The guidelines for fish consumption (150-220 g/week) and fat intake (25-45 g/d) were generally met, but the consumption of eggs was too low. However, eggs contained in pastries, soups, and sauces were not accounted for in this approach, suggesting that the actual egg consumption was higher. The German population generally met the recommendations for non-alcoholic beverages (1500 mL/d) (Heuer et al., 2015). Heuer et al. (2015) also observed that the SES influenced the dietary patterns. A German study has revealed that a higher SES was associated with increased consumption of cereals, vegetables, fruits, and fish, and could reduce the consumption of potatoes, meat, and meat products, confectionery, fats, and oils among participants (Heuer et al., 2015).

A previous study compared the German dietary guidelines provided by the DGE and the recommended food quantities of the planetary health diet (Willett et al., 2019) with the actual food uptake in Germany based on the German National Food Survey II during 2005-2007. The comparison revealed that the intake of vegetables, including legumes, was lower than the recommendations by both the DGE and the planetary health diet. The average consumption of fruits including nuts in Germany fell within the range recommended by the planetary health diet but was too low according to the DGE. Moreover, the intake of nuts was only 10.0% of the recommended value proposed by both the DGE and the planetary health diet. The average consumption of milk and dairy products, fish, oils, and fats was lower than the recommendations of both the DGE and the planetary health diet, while meat consumption was higher. The difference in the ratio of red to white meat consumption compared with the recommendation of the planetary health diet was notable. Comparing recommended intake values for cereals and tubers was challenging owing to the existence of varying specifications (whole grain, white flour, dry weight, and ready-to-eat). Additionally, comparing recommended intake values for sugar was not feasible owing to the differing definitions of free sugar and a lack of data (Breidenassel et al., 2022).

Overall, dietary patterns in both China and Germany deviate from the recommendations in their respective FBDGs.

As mentioned earlier, a transition towards a sustainable diet is imperative for ensuring food security and building a resilient global food system. In the past, the development of dietary guidelines has emphasized the relationship between diet and health, along with the implementation of dietary reference values and nutrient requirements. This approach disregards the impact of dietary recommendations on social, environmental, and cultural contexts of dietary intake, such as the impact of the food system and nutrition on climate change. Therefore, integrating evidence-based insights from these different contexts into dietary guidelines is necessary (Schäfer et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2022), as these insights have the potential to significantly contribute to a more sustainable diet (Renner et al., 2021). FBDGs could serve as a valuable tool for promoting a transition towards a sustainable diet.

On a European level, as part of the Farm to Fork strategy, the European Commission published the scientific opinion titled “Towards Sustainable Food Consumption” (European Commission, 2023a). The objective is to provide recommendations for policy interventions to overcome barriers that impede healthy and sustainable nutrition. It is recognized that while a dietary shift is the most crucial lever to mitigate climate change, the reduction of food waste along the entire food value chain is also fundamental for enhancing sustainability in the food system. Moreover, the social and cultural significance of food is also considered. Although this scientific opinion of the European Commission is not a FBDG, it provides recommendations for future national FBDGs and food policy measures. For example, the inclusion of sustainability criteria into the national FBDGs is recommended to promote healthy and sustainable food consumption (European Commission, 2023b).

Fischer and Garnett (2016) conducted a web-based review of national dietary guidelines worldwide and found that only 83 out of 215 countries and regions provided FBDGs. They concluded that among these 83 FBDGs, only those from Brazil, Germany, Qatar, and Sweden incorporated environmental aspects into their main messages. However, China was one of the countries in the process of renewing its FBDGs at the time of that research.

A comparison of 95 FBDGs evaluated the extent to which recommendations for plant-based diets were incorporated (Klapp et al., 2022). The findings revealed that Germany did not recommend a plant-based diet. Although an ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet was accepted, concerns were raised about risks associated with a plant-based diet, such as vitamin B12 deficiency, and a vegan diet was rejected. Animal products were explicitly recommended as part of a balanced diet. In the Chinese FBDGs, plant-based alternatives were mentioned, and information about the vegetarian diet was provided without criticism. In a comparison of the different FBDGs regarding their encouragement of sustainable healthy food choices, Germany ranked the 50^th while China ranked the 31^st (Klapp et al., 2022).

In China, the significant shift in dietary patterns over the last few decades has also resulted in an increasing environmental impact of Chinese food consumption, particularly concerning water usage, land utilization, and GHG emissions (Zhang et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2022). Between 1996 and 2010, the carbon footprint of China’s food chain system increased from 1.308 to 1.618×10⁹ t CO₂-eq (Li et al., 2016). The largest ecological, water, and carbon footprints were generated by the consumption of rice, vegetables, and pork (Song et al., 2017). A comparison of rural and urban dietary patterns between 1980 and 2019 revealed that individual rural diets typically had a higher environmental impact than urban diets (Wu et al., 2022). This was primarily due to the greater proportion of grain consumption in rural areas and the high energy consumption associated with grain production. However, since 2000, there has been a convergence of nutritional profiles between rural and urban areas. By 2019, the global warming potential, acidification potential, and eutrophication potential of rural and urban diets were comparable, and only the energy use of rural diets remained higher than that of urban diets (Wu et al., 2022). Owing to an overall reduction in grain consumption in China, the energy use of food consumption has decreased. However, the global warming potential and eutrophication potential have increased owing to the rising meat consumption (Wu et al., 2022). In addition to the location of residence (urban or rural areas), the level of income also plays a significant role in determining the environmental impact of individuals’ dietary patterns. One study reported that high-income groups exhibited up to 89.0% higher ecological footprint than low-income groups (Wang et al., 2022).

Su et al. (2022) determined the dietary environmental footprint per capita across 7 provinces or municipality (Guangdong, Hubei, Shandong, Sichuan, Jilin, Gansu, and Beijing) in China according to data from the China Statistical Yearbook 2015-2020. They discovered that the average dietary environmental footprint was higher in southern parts than in northern parts, as well as higher in urban areas than in rural areas. In addition, the dietary environmental footprint was directly correlated with per-capita disposable income. This correlation aligns with the observed differences in dietary patterns between southern and northern parts, as well as between urban and rural areas in China (Li et al., 2020).

However, the data from the nutrition surveys conducted in 2011 and 2012 are already more than a decade old and cannot reflect the current dietary patterns in China (Yu et al., 2016). It has been projected that by 2030, an additional 21.0% of cropland will be required for China to meet its increasing demand for food crops such as cereal grains and oilseeds (Yu et al., 2016).

Song et al. (2017) calculated that a dietary shift towards a more sustainable diet could reduce GHG emissions in China. The reduction in GHG emissions was mostly attributed to reduced meat consumption. However, it was estimated that an extreme decrease in meat consumption may lead to the increased consumption of other food groups owing to nutrient compensation, resulting in trade-offs regarding GHG emission reduction (Song et al., 2017). In a study conducted in China, diets that minimize economic resources and environmental impacts were explored through multi-objective programming (Zhang et al., 2021). An optimized diet was proposed, which resulted in reduced meat consumption and increased intake of milk and beans for protein supply. This diet, which costs less than other diets, may lead to a decrease in food consumption-related environmental impact in terms of water use, land use, and GHG emissions. Zhang et al. (2021) claimed that in addition to environmental benefits, the optimized diet can offer health benefits and have the potential to prevent NCDs.

Li et al. (2016) projected that a shift towards balanced dietary patterns, as recommended by the Chinese FBDGs, along with improved cultivation and processing technology, would reduce GHG emissions in China by 41.5% by 2050 compared with the 2010 level. Additionally, it was suggested that reducing deviation from the Chinese FBDGs, which entails decreased meat and egg consumption and increased intake of fruits, vegetables, and dairy products, could enhance diet quality and environmental sustainability in China. Other scholars further proposed that this could be facilitated by subsidizing cereal and fruit prices (Lei and Shimokawa, 2020). Wang et al. (2020) concluded that adhering to the minimum recommended levels of the Chinese FBDGs would result in a 36.0% reduction in the nitrogen footprint, a 22.0% reduction in the phosphorus footprint, and a 29.0% reduction in the carbon footprint compared with the levels observed for the average Chinese diet in 2015. However, there would be a 3.0% increase in the water footprint. A shift to the maximum recommended levels of the Chinese FBDGs, however, would lead to increases in the nitrogen footprint by 22.0%, the phosphorus footprint by 63.0%, the carbon footprint by 29.0%, and the water footprint by 65.0%. The adoption of the Chinese FBDGs would therefore not necessarily lead to a reduced environmental impact. Instead, the environmental impact depends on the adoption at the level of specific food groups. This is in accordance with the findings of He et al. (2019), who also investigated the impact of a dietary shift from a diet based on the China Health and Nutrition Survey in 2011 towards a healthy diet of the 2016 Chinese Dietary Guidelines on GHG emissions, water consumption, and land use. The authors concluded that shifting to a healthy diet did not necessarily benefit the environment for many developed countries. While the decrease in meat consumption would have a positive impact, the increase in the consumption of foods such as dairy products and seafood that supply nutrients such as calcium and essential omega-3 fatty acids would counteract the environmental benefits of decreased meat consumption (He et al., 2019). This is consistent with the findings of Springmann et al. (2016), who stated that the environmental impact of a dietary shift towards less meat and more plant-based diets differed greatly among regions. High- and middle-income Western countries exhibited the most positive impacts on the environment and health (Springmann et al., 2016).

Furthermore, it was estimated that adopting the EAT-Lancet Commission’s planetary health diet by 54 high-income countries, including Germany, could potentially lead to a 61.0% reduction in GHG emissions from direct agricultural production, accompanied by significant carbon sequestration (Sun et al., 2022). This would mainly be due to a reduction in meat consumption. The simultaneous increase in the production of plant-based proteins, vegetables, and fruits would result in a slight uptick in GHG emissions, partially offsetting the reduction achieved through decreased meat consumption. Moreover, nutrients such as vitamin B12 and omega-3 fatty acids must be obtained from plant-based products. Interestingly, for Japan and South Korea, adopting the planetary health diet would entail an increased consumption of dairy products. Thus, regionally appropriate dietary recommendations that consider both environmental impacts and public health are required, as the low dairy product consumption in East Asia is mostly due to high levels of lactose intolerance (Sun et al., 2022). This underscores the significance of considering and integrating food cultures, local customs, habits, and needs during the formulation of dietary recommendations.

Meier and Christen (2013) demonstrated the potential environmental impact of various diets and food groups in Germany. They compared the environmental footprint of the average diet in 2006 in Germany with four dietary scenarios (ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet and vegan diet, diet based on the dietary recommendations of the German Federation for Independent Health Consultation and diet based on the dietary recommendations of the DGE, respectively) in terms of indicators such as CO₂ emissions, NH₃ emissions, land use, water consumption, phosphorus use, and primary energy use. Using the average nutrition in 2006 as a baseline, the authors concluded that the vegan diet had the most positive impact, followed by the ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet. These two diets exhibited the highest positive impact in terms of all indicators except for water consumption. This exception was attributed to the reduced consumption of animal products and the increased consumption of nuts, seeds, and vegan milk replacers. The German FBDGs ranked the 3^rd and 4^th, yet still had a more positive environmental impact than the actual diet in 2006. Interestingly, in 2006, the diet of women was closer to the dietary recommendations than that of men (Meier and Christen, 2013). Similarly, a comparison of the environmental impact of the FBDGs of the DGE, the EAT-Lancet Commission’s planetary health diet, and a strictly vegan diet with the current German average diet showed that the vegan diet exhibited the least environmental impact regarding CO₂ emissions and land use, while the planetary health diet demonstrated the lowest water consumption. The current German dietary patterns displayed the highest water consumption, while the German FBDGs led to the highest CO₂ emissions and land use. The high CO₂ emissions were attributed to the recommended milk consumption (Wirsam and Leitzmann, 2022). In both studies (Meier and Christen, 2013; Wirsam and Leitzmann, 2022), the vegan diet demonstrated the lowest environmental impact. Interestingly, in the comparison conducted by Wirsam and Leitzmann (2022), the vegan diet featured the highest calorie and protein content among the four diets analyzed. This underscores that a well-planned vegan diet is nutritionally sufficient, promotes health, and helps prevent NCDs. However, critical nutrients such as vitamin B12 and calcium were identified as potential concerns for vegans, necessitating the adoption of an appropriate individualized nutritional plan. Critical nutrient considerations were also observed for other dietary patterns, such as the omnivore diet (Dawczynski et al., 2022).

In addition to nutritional aspects, affordability is also a crucial factor. A comparison of existing dietary habits with proposed healthy and sustainable dietary patterns indicated that the latter would result in a cost reduction of 22.0%-34.0% for upper-middle-income to high-income countries and a cost increase of 18.0%-29.0% for lower-middle-income to low-income countries (Springmann et al., 2021). This could pose a challenge to transitioning towards sustainable nutrition, particularly in countries or regions where poverty, malnutrition, and hunger are prevalent.

The food production and consumption systems significantly contribute to climate change, as well as hunger, malnutrition, and nutrition-related NCDs have become global challenges. Transitioning to healthy and sustainable food consumption requires support from national food and nutrition policies and effective implementation of FBDGs within society.

A comparison between China and Germany shows that both countries have established longstanding food and nutrition policies, including FBDGs. The guidelines are surprisingly similar, or at least within comparable ranges, in terms of food groups, despite the differing food cultures. China recommends higher quantities of fish and eggs compared with Germany. However, in both China and Germany, the actual nutrition of the population is not consistent with the respective national FBDGs, and there is an observed increase in nutrition-related NCDs in both countries. Moreover, data on the actual dietary patterns of populations in China and Germany are lacking, as the national nutrition surveys were conducted in 2011 and 2007, respectively, and more recent data are unavailable. For a valid representation of the current nutritional status in both countries and an estimation of their respective sustainable impact, current data are required.

A transition towards adhering to the respective FBDGs would yield environmental benefits in both China and Germany. However, it is projected that alternative dietary patterns, such as an optimized diet, a vegan diet, or the planetary health diet for Western countries, would result in even lower environmental footprints. A revision of the Chinese and German FBDGs with regard to sustainability is recommended, and regional and cultural aspects should also be considered in FBDGs. Evidence suggests that the environmental impact of a food group depends on its origin and production system, while food culture and eating habits determine the feasibility and practicability of FBDGs.

Birgit Anika RUMPOLD: conceptualization, literature research, writing - original draft, and writing - review & editing; SUN Lingxiao: writing - review & editing; Nina LANGEN: conceptualization and writing - review & editing; and YU Ruide: conceptualization and writing - review & editing. All authors approved the manuscript.

YU Ruide is an Executive Editor-in-Chief of Regional Sustainability and was not involved in the editorial review or the decision to publish this article. All authors declare that there are no competing interests.