The northern slope of the Kunlun Mountains is a strategically important area for safeguarding national security in the new era and a key passage in the “Silk Road Economic Belt”, with a prominent strategic position. However, due to historical and natural reasons, the economic development in this region is relatively lagging. This paper systematically analyzes the current issues in the high-quality development in the northern slope of the Kunlun Mountains, including low water utilization limit, serious lag in water conservancy construction, relatively single industrial layout, slow urbanization process with a lack of important industrial layout, and insufficient driving force for high-quality regional development. In conjunction with the regional natural environmental characteristics and development opportunities, this paper proposes to accelerate the construction of an urban cluster system for this economic belt with multi-industry coordinated development, significantly improve the water resource utilization limits and enhance water management capabilities with conservancy engineering, guarantee the water resource security for agricultural upgrading and efficiency improvement in the economic belt of the northern slope of the Kunlun Mountains. It is proposed to systematically build a multi-functional agricultural-forestry-pastoral base in the region, construct a diversified food supply system, bridge the water deficit with energy, improve comprehensive resource utilization efficiency. By advantages leveraging and resource sharing between the Production and Construction Corps of Xinjiang and local communities, it aims to accelerate the construction and high-quality development of the economic belt of the northern slope of Kunlun Mountains. The research findings can provide technological support for ecological security and accelerating high-quality development in the economic belt of the northern slope of the Kunlun Mountains.

The Ili River Basin, spanning China and Kazakhstan, features a delicate ecological environment. Understanding the vegetation changes throughout the basin is essential for the region’s sustainable development. This study analyzed spatiotemporal vegetation variations in the Ili River Basin from 2000 to 2022, utilizing enhanced vegetation index data from MODIS. We examined vegetation change disparities within and outside China’s portion of the basin, among various vegetation types, and across different elevations. Our findings reveal: (1) Since 2000, vegetation conditions have generally improved across the Ili River Basin, notably in Kazakhstan, whereas a decline was observed within China. Degraded regions are predominantly at elevations between 1000 m and 3000 m. Grasslands and croplands exhibited positive trends, in contrast to forests. (2) Over the past 20 years, the Ili River Basin experienced minor vegetation fluctuations, with more pronounced variations within China. Grasslands encountered higher fluctuations compared to croplands and forests, and the 2500 m to 3000 m elevation range showed relatively stable vegetation. (3) Future projections indicate a prevailing positive trend in vegetation across the Ili River Basin, with approximately 52% of the areas expected to see ongoing improvement. Grasslands are anticipated to have higher improvement ratios than croplands and forests. Regions below 1000 m and above 3000 m in elevation are likely to experience sustained positive changes. This study’s insights into vegetation dynamics will inform ecological protection strategies in the Ili River Basin.

To investigate the chemical characteristics of groundwater and its evolutionary patterns in the middle and lower reaches of the Hotan River Basin, Xinjiang, China, this study analyzed 21 groundwater samples from the area. It included an examination of the constituents and origins of groundwater solutes and the reverse simulation of hydrogeochemical processes. The analysis employed Piper trilinear diagrams, Gibbs diagrams, PHREEQC software, and mathematical statistics to explore the chemical properties of groundwater, the principal sources of solutes, and their evolution in the study region. The results revealed that: (1) High concentrations of eight conventional ions in the groundwater, with Cl^-, SO₄^2-, Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and HCO₃^- being particularly abundant. (2) There was a significant spatial variability in the dissolved constituents of the groundwater. The predominant chemical types were SO₄·Cl-Ca·Mg and SO₄·Cl-Na, with the latter being more common across most areas. The groundwater’s alkalinity was generally low, and the water quality in most regions met daily drinking water standards. However, in some oasis plains, elevated NO₃^- levels were attributed to human activities. (3) The dissolution of minerals such as halite, calcite, dolomite, and gypsum, facilitated by water-rock interactions and cation exchange, was identified as the main source of Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Cl^-, and SO₄^2- ions in the groundwater. During transit to finer soil plains and desert areas, ion concentrations increased due to evaporation and concentration processes. (4) In open system conditions, CO₂ enhanced the dissolution of various minerals, leading to increased ion concentrations. As groundwater flowed into the alluvial plains downstream, the fine sand layer acted as a barrier, reducing the intensity of groundwater flow and solute leaching, with evaporation and concentration processes becoming more dominant. This study provides a theoretical foundation for the sustainable development and management of water resources and environmental protection in the Hotan River Basin.

The gobi, a prominent terrain feature in desert regions, exhibits surface characteristics markedly distinct from those of typical desert terrains. Therefore, it is imperative to investigate the radiation balance properties of the gobi’s surface in desert environments to enhance the accuracy of parameters used in land-atmosphere energy exchange models, particularly in the Taklimakan Desert. Utilizing continuous observational data from the Qira gobi station, situated on the southern periphery of the Taklimakan Desert as part of the China-Japan Sand and Dust Storm Cooperation Project (ADEC), this study examines the diurnal variations in the components of surface radiation balance at the Qira gobi station throughout the year, across different seasons, and under various weather conditions. The findings indicate that: (1) The peak values for radiation components at the Qira gobi station are typically observed in July, with the exception of upward shortwave radiation, which peaks in January. (2) The diurnal variation maxima for downward and upward shortwave radiation are recorded in spring, whereas the peak values for downward longwave radiation, upward longwave radiation, and net radiation are noted in summer. (3) During sunny days, the radiation components exhibit a consistent trend across seasons, whereas under cloudy, overcast, and rainy conditions, their variations are erratic. Specifically, during precipitation events, both downward and upward longwave radiations significantly surpass the levels of other components. (4) The annual average surface albedo is calculated at 0.32. Notably, the albedo increases substantially during winter owing to snow cover, with the seasonal sequence from highest to lowest being winter, spring, autumn, and summer. The diurnal albedo variation, influenced by the solar zenith angle, forms a smooth “U” shape on clear days, whereas it fluctuates irregularly under different weather conditions.

This study evaluates the applicability of common climatic seasonal division methods in Tibet of China, utilizing daily temperature data from 38 meteorological stations spanning from 1981 to 2022. The analysis highlights the limitations of various seasonal division approaches and emphasizes the suitability of Tibetan phenological and growing season division methods for agricultural activities in Plateau region of Tibet. Temperature thresholds for seasonal division were determined based on Tibetan phenology and the main crops’ growing periods. The research reveals that: (1) While general methods for climatic season division exhibit certain limitations in Tibet, the Tibetan phenological and growing season division methods align well with agricultural requirements. (2) Employing temperature thresholds of “6 ℃, 15 ℃”, “5 ℃, 16 ℃”, “6 ℃, 16 ℃”, and “6 ℃, 17 ℃”, the study analyzes the variation in the lengths of the four seasons at typical weather stations. Gerze experiences a longer winter, while Zayu has a prolonged summer. In Lhasa, Qamdo, Gerze, and Zayu stations, summer durations have extended, whereas autumn and winter have contracted. (3) Mutation tests indicate that the average summer temperatures at Lhasa and Qamdo stations underwent significant changes in 2011 and 2017, respectively, supporting the use of 17 ℃ as the summer threshold. (4) The newly proposed four-season division method for Tibet, characterized by the “6 ℃, 17 ℃” index, demonstrates a distribution pattern of weather stations mainly along the lower elevation areas of the Yarlung Tsangpo River Line during summer. Spring and autumn durations are shorter in the northwest and south, and longer in the central and eastern regions. Conversely, summer is extended in the central areas and reduced in the peripheral regions, with the opposite pattern observed for winter, spring, and autumn. This spatiotemporal distribution aligns with Tibet’s climatic reality. The average onset dates for spring, summer, autumn, and winter are March 21, June 16, July 25, and November 3, respectively.

Utilizing meteorological observation data from 20 national meteorological stations in Ningxia, China, spanning from 1961 to 2020, along with socioeconomic statistical data from the past four decades, this study established indicators for drought process events in Ningxia. Subsequently, it developed an interdecadal drought disaster risk assessment model in line with disaster risk assessment theory. The study analyzed the interdecadal variation characteristics and regional differences of drought events and the associated risks to major crops in Ningxia, aiming to identify the factors influencing regional crop interdecadal risk changes. The findings are as follows: (1) The cumulative effect, duration, and intensity indicators of drought events in Ningxia over the past six decades exhibit distinct interdecadal variation characteristics, with notable shifts in trends and mean values in the central northern region and southern mountainous areas around 1980 and 2010, respectively. Additionally, the spatial distribution of high-value areas for drought event and disaster risk indicators demonstrated a pattern of initial increase, followed by a decrease, another increase, and a final decrease over the decades. (2) Since the 1980s, the risk levels of corn drought disasters in Ningxia’s regions, in descending order, are the Yellow River irrigation area, the central arid zone, and the southern mountainous area. Influenced by the continuous expansion of the corn planting area and the growth of the gross domestic product (GDP), the drought risk levels in the central and southern regions have seen an interdecadal increase. Moreover, the increase amplitude in wheat drought disaster risk levels, in descending order, are the central arid zone, the southern mountainous area, and the Yellow River irrigation area. The primary reasons for the heightened drought risk in parts of the central arid zone during the 2010s include the confluence of high disaster risk, wheat planting area, and GDP. (3) Given the future challenges of water scarcity and inadequate irrigation in Ningxia’s central and southern regions, it is advisable to adopt measures such as enhancing artificial rainfall capabilities, developing new crop varieties, and encouraging farmland returning to forestry and grassland or migration to mitigate the disaster risk. These strategies aim to reduce the induced disaster risk, disaster bearing body exposure and pregnant environment vulnerability, thereby lowering the drought disaster risk levels for local corn and wheat production. The insights from this analysis offer a scientific foundation for the region’s strategic agricultural planning, efficient water use, drought mitigation, and disaster response efforts, contributing to the ecological protection and high-quality development initiatives in the Yellow River Basin of Ningxia.

Global warming has led to the increased frequency of extreme events such as droughts, posing significant threats to ecological security and sustainable socioeconomic development, particularly in arid regions, which are highly sensitive and responsive to climate changes. This paper employs the distributed hydrological model HEC-HMS, utilizing observed meteorological and hydrological data from basin stations and global climate model data from the Sixth International Coupled Model Intercomparison Program (CMIP6), to simulate and forecast the historical (1986—2014) and future (2015—2100) runoff trends and hydrological drought risks in the Yarkant River Basin (an essential tributary of the Tarim River), Xinjiang, China. The findings indicate that: (1) The HEC-HMS model is well-suited for arid basin areas. Under the three shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) scenarios, the runoff and standardized runoff index (SRI) in the Yarkant River Basin are projected to significantly increase (P<0.1), with the SRI growth rate estimated at approximately 0.13-0.27·(10a)^-1. (2) A comparative analysis of the marginal distributions of four drought characteristic variables in the basin for both historical and future periods reveals that the duration and intensity of future droughts will exceed those in the historical record, with a continuous rise in drought event magnitudes. (3) Moreover, the joint probability of future hydrological droughts in the Yarkant River Basin is expected to decrease relative to the historical period, leading to a prolonged return period for future droughts. The outcomes of this study offer valuable scientific references for water resource management and the development of strategies to mitigate hydrological drought risks in the basin.

Utilizing Landsat TM/ETM+/OLI imagery and digital elevation model (DEM) data, this study extracted the boundaries of glaciers and glacial lakes in Poiqu Basin, Xigaze City, Xizang Autonomous Region, China from 1990 to 2020 through the ratio threshold method and visual interpretation. The distribution and variation of glaciers and glacial lakes over three decades were analyzed, alongside the exploration of their co-evolution and response to climate change within the basin. The findings revealed: (1) A notable acceleration in glacier shrinkage within the Poiqu Basin over the last decade, with glaciers primarily situated between 5500 m and 6100 m. While the count of large-scale glaciers (≥10 km²) remained constant, small-scale glaciers (≤0.5 km²) exhibited an upward trend. (2) Both the number and area of glacial lakes witnessed a significant increase, with an expansion rate of 74.24%. Predominantly located between 4900 m and 5300 m, the expansion was more pronounced in larger glacial lakes (≥0.07 km²), whereas smaller lakes (≤0.03 km²) also saw a marked rise in numbers. (3) Glacial lakes connected to their parent glaciers emerged as the most significant type contributing to glacial lake expansion, registering a 72.08% increase. (4) The past 30 years have experienced a gradual temperature rise and a minor decline in precipitation. These climatic shifts, particularly the temperature increase and precipitation decrease, have been crucial in glacier retreat, while meltwater from glaciers has facilitated the expansion of glacial lakes. Through examining the distribution, changes, and interrelation of glaciers and glacial lakes in Poiqu Basin, this study aims to provide valuable data support for understanding glacier area dynamics and aiding in the prediction and mitigation of glacial lake outburst floods.

In the arid and ecologically sensitive Tarim River Basin, a vital hub for grain and cotton production in China, the harmonious development of water, arable land, and agricultural resources is crucial for sustainable growth. This study constructs a water-cropland-grain-cotton system model for the basin, evaluates its development index, and assesses the system’s coupling coordination using a coupling coordination degree model. Furthermore, the Fractional Logit model was employed to identify factors influencing the system’s coordinated development. The findings reveal that: (1) The development indices indicate a hierarchy of water system>water-cropland-grain-cotton system>cropland system>grain-cotton system. Post-2013, the development index of the cropland system in Aksu and Kashgar Prefetures surged, surpassing those of the combined water-cropland-grain-cotton system and the individual water system. Changes in other areas were minimal. (2) The coordination level of the basin’s coupled system ranges from 0.475 to 0.680, indicating a transition from minimal to basic coordination. Kashgar exhibits the highest coordination, while Kizilsu Kirgiz Autonomous Prefecture the lowest. This index, after an initial gradual increase, experienced a notable decline post-2017, particularly in the Aksu Prefecture. (3) The number of reservoirs, general public budget expenditure, and population size emerge as critical factors influencing the system’s coordination. An increase of one unit in these variables corresponds to a rise in the coupling coordination degree by 1.0%, 21.0%, and 35.6%, respectively.

Research on the indirect value of rice production has predominantly focused on ecosystem services, often overlooking the importance of negative externalities. Addressing these externalities is crucial for ecological regulation and the promotion of sustainable agriculture. This study employed market valuation and spatial autocorrelation methods to evaluate the negative externality value of rice production in China, using panel data from 2000 to 2021 across various provinces. The analysis covered greenhouse gas emissions, pollution from fertilizers and pesticides, plastic film residue, water resource consumption, and energy pollution from agricultural machinery. The findings reveal that: (1) The mean annual value of negative externalities in national rice production was approximately 2080.27×10⁸ yuan, with the contributions from greenhouse gas emissions, fertilizers, pesticides, plastic waste, water resource consumption, and agricultural machinery energy pollution being 35.93%, 20.71%, 10.27%, 9.04%, 17.44%, and 6.61%, respectively. (2) The total value of negative externalities showed an initial increase followed by a decrease, with 2012 marking a turning point. This trend reflects the impact of new era of ecological control measures. (3) There was significant spatial heterogeneity in the distribution of negative externalities, mainly concentrated to the east of the Hu Line. The annual mean values in rice-producing regions were as follows: central China (1025.45×10⁸ yuan), south China (426.96×10⁸ yuan), southwest China (329.36×10⁸ yuan), northeast China (221.52×10⁸ yuan), and north China (61.99×10⁸ yuan). There was a positive global correlation between external cost values and geographical space, with local spatial autocorrelation evolving from high-high clustering in the southeast to low-low clustering and insignificance toward the northwest. High-high clusters were predominantly found in central and southern rice-growing areas of China, while low-low clusters were mainly in the northern region of China. This paper presents a novel approach to assessing negative externalities in rice production, offering a comprehensive and dynamic global perspective. It also proposes strategic responses involving government, market, and farmer-led initiatives.

With the rapid global climate change and the swift urban development in the Weihe River Basin, the vegetation ecosystem in this region faces numerous challenges. Investigating the spatiotemporal changes in vegetation and their response to soil moisture conditions is crucial. Utilizing normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and land surface temperature (LST) data from MODIS for the years 2001 to 2020, this study inverted the soil moisture conditions in the Weihe River Basin, northwest China. Through linear regression, residual analysis, and contribution analysis, we thoroughly examined the spatiotemporal characteristics of vegetation cover during the growing seasons and the driving factors and contributions to soil moisture conditions from 2001 to 2020. The results indicate: (1) During the period from 2001 to 2020, the overall trend of the growing season NDVI mean values in the Weihe River Basin exhibited a fluctuating increase, with an average trend rate of 0.47×10^-2·a^-1. The vegetation showed a recovery trend. However, during the years 2012 to 2016, the growing season NDVI mean values experienced a declining trend, attributed to the inhibitory effect of human activities. (2) The impact of soil moisture conditions and human activities on the growing season NDVI in the Weihe River Basin diverged significantly. The influence of soil moisture conditions primarily exhibited a relatively weak and slow growth effect, while the impact of human activities was mainly characterized by promoting vegetation recovery. (3) The contributions of soil moisture conditions and human activities to the changes on the growing season NDVI mean values in the Weihe River Basin were mainly concentrated in the same direction. Negative contributions, accounting for 19.77%, were solely attributed to soil moisture conditions. On the other hand, positive contributions, indicating higher influence, primarily originated from human activities. This suggests that human activities are the primary driving force behind vegetation cover changes in the Weihe River Basin. (4) The overall vegetation in the Weihe River Basin is influenced by a dual promotion from both soil moisture conditions and human activities. Inhibitory effects are primarily concentrated in the agricultural ecological zone of the Fenwei Basin, which corresponds to a high contribution rate from human activities in the same direction. This suggests that current human activities are the main factor inhibiting the growth of vegetation cover. This study can provide a more accurate scientific basis for ecological conservation and sustainable development in the Weihe River Basin.

Timely and accurate understanding of crop distribution within irrigation areas is essential for the efficient allocation of irrigation water resources and precise field management. This study focuses on the Qingtongxia irrigation area in Ningxia, China, employing multitemporal Sentinel-2 satellite data to analyze early characteristics of rice and maize. Key “flooding” and “vegetation” signals are extracted, and a time-series dataset comprising the modified normalized difference water index (MNDWI) and normalized vegetation index (NDVI) is constructed. By analyzing sample thresholds for these key features, a decision tree model for the early planting distribution of rice and maize is established, facilitating the extraction of the spatial distribution for rice and maize planting in the Qingtongxia irrigation area in 2022. The results reveal the following: (1) During the latter half of the maize and rice seedling stages, from May 15 to 31, flooding and vegetation signals are crucial for differentiating between the two crops. (2) Based on the early crop phenological characteristics, the mapping accuracy of rice and corn images obtained from May 16 to May 31 was higher than 90%, with user accuracy exceeding 91% and overall accuracy exceeding 90%. The Kappa coefficient was higher than 0.88, significantly higher than the classification accuracy of the random forest classification method during the same period. (3) The proposed method demonstrates strong applicability in the early extraction of rice and maize planting distribution, requiring fewer ground samples for extension across both spatial and temporal scales. Therefore, this method provides significant support for early investigations of rice and maize planting distribution in the Qingtongxia irrigation area.

The intensive utilization of land within development zones is crucial for the region’s high-quality development in the new era, with its dynamics emerging as a prominent research area. This study, focusing on the development zones of Ningxia, China, investigates the spatio-temporal distribution of land use intensification from 2018 to 2021. It identifies key influencing factors such as economic quality, innovation drive, open environment, green transformation, and structural optimization, employing the geographically and temporally weighted regression (GTWR) model to delineate the underlying drivers of intensive land use. The findings reveal that: (1) Land use intensification in Ningxia’s development zones exhibits a distribution pattern where the northern Yellow River irrigation area surpasses the central arid area, which in turn surpasses the southern mountainous area, with the disparity between these areas decreasing over the study period. (2) The GTWR model proficiently captures spatial and temporal variations in the driving mechanism, highlighting green transformation and structural optimization as primary influencers, followed by innovation drive and economic quality. (3) The impact of each factor on land use intensification exhibits significant spatial and temporal heterogeneity; for instance, the growth rate of fixed asset investment exerts a more pronounced influence in the northern Yellow River irrigation area, while the growth rate of industrial enterprises’ total income is more influential in the central and southern regions. Moreover, the effect of land consumption per unit of industrial income on intensification levels slightly diminishes, with the influence of other factors gradually intensifying. This study elucidates the dynamic mechanisms of intensive land use across different development zones, aiming to inform land use policy and support the development of high-quality zones in the western Yellow River Basin.

China is in a phase of high-quality development, where addressing the challenges posed by extensive land use due to rapid urban expansion is crucial for the sustainable growth of cities. While existing research predominantly focuses on the economical and intensive use of urban construction land or the status of high-quality development, the interplay and coordination between these aspects are seldom discussed. This study targets the Ningxia of China, establishing multidimensional index systems to assess the level of economical and intensive use of urban construction land and the status of high-quality development across 22 districts and counties in 2018. Through the analysis of coupling coordination degree, relative development degree, and influence coordination force, the study explores the coupling coordination relationship between these elements. The findings reveal the following: (1) The economical and intensive use level of urban construction land exhibits a pattern of being “low in the central region and high in the northern and southern areas”, whereas the high-quality development level is characterized by a “high in the northwest and low in the southeast” spatial pattern in Ningxia in 2018. (2) The coupling coordination degree of the two systems shows a “low in the central region and high in the northern and southern areas” spatial distribution, with most districts and counties in Ningxia achieving a basic state of coordination, indicating a virtuous cycle in the relationship between the two systems. (3) The innovation and security subsystems tend to negatively impact the coupling coordination of the systems, while the green and coordination subsystems generally contribute positively. These results provide an empirical foundation for promoting the economical and intensive use of construction land within the context of high-quality development in the Yellow River Basin.

The Hexi Corridor, as China’s most densely populated arid region, necessitates a thorough understanding of the evolution of its spatial patterns and the underlying driving mechanisms to reconcile regional development with environmental protection within a three-zone framework. This research employs a suite of quantitative methods, including the spatial transition matrix, landscape pattern index, and optimal parameter geographical detector, to examine the spatiotemporal characteristics and determinants of territorial spatial pattern changes in the Hexi Corridor from 2000 to 2020, focusing on “quantitative change” and “form change”. The findings reveal as follows: (1) The Hexi Corridor’s urban, agricultural, and various ecological spaces have expanded, accompanied by a notable decline of 2758.87 km² in green ecological areas. Despite heightened developmental activities across the three-zone space, ecological conservation efforts have yet to yield significant results. (2) The predominant form of territorial space transition is the internal “desert-green land” dynamics within ecological zones, marked by considerable variability in the extent of cross-transformation across different functionally oriented zones. This cross-transformation of territorial spaces is characterized by increasing fragmentation, dispersion, and complexity in landscape patterns. (3) The territorial spatial pattern evolution in the Hexi Corridor is influenced by multifaceted factors. “Quantitative change” is primarily driven by national policy directives, natural geographic conditions, transportation-related constraints, and socio-economic drivers, whereas “form change” is shaped by natural geography and further modified by transportation and socio-economic factors.

The study of the coupled coordination relationship between park green spaces and urban functional spaces, along with its influencing factors, is crucial for optimizing the layout of park green spaces and enhancing the synergistic development of urban functional spaces. This research focuses on the central urban area of Urumqi City, Xinjiang, China, employing kernel density analysis, standard deviation ellipse, coupling coordination degree model, and Geodetector. It aims to analyze the distribution patterns of park green spaces and urban functional spaces and investigate their coupling and coordination relationship and influencing factors. The findings reveal that: (1) Parks and urban functional spaces exhibit a spatial aggregation characteristic that is dense at the center and sparse at the edges, diminishing in concentric circles and expanding toward the northwest. (2) The distribution centers of parks and urban functional spaces have shifted away from the city center, with parks, residential, transportation, and public service spaces aligning in the northwest-southeast direction, while leisure and commercial spaces align in the northeast-southwest direction. (3) The predominant coupling and coordination type between park green spaces and various urban functional spaces is moderate dissonance, with the degree of coupling and coordination displaying spatial differentiation characterized by higher levels in the center and lower levels in the eastern, western side, and extremities of the north-south axis. Demographic factors and transportation conditions are identified as primary influences on the degree of coupling and coordination between parks and urban functional spaces, with socio-economic factors playing a secondary role.