Remote Sensing for Natural Resources >
Mapping mountain vegetation using realistic 3D models integrating optical images and light detection and ranging data
Received date: 2024-09-02
Revised date: 2025-02-14
Online published: 2026-06-03
Vegetation distribution serves as a crucial foundation for natural resource conservation and ecosystem health assessment. In mountainous regions, substantial terrain undulations and complex vegetation types complicate the mapping process. Moreover, the traditional remote sensing-based vegetation classification, whose mapping relies on 2D imagery, fails to depict the vertical structure and 3D spatial distribution of vegetation. To investigate the potential of realistic 3D models in fine-scale vegetation classification and mapping, this study proposed a realistic 3D model-based mapping approach for mountain vegetation by integrating optical images and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data. Focusing on Neilingding Island in Guangdong, this study constructed a multi-source dataset using realistic 3D models, multispectral images, and LiDAR point clouds acquired by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based measurements, followed by data registration and feature extraction. Subsequently, the LightGBM algorithm was employed to achieve fine-scale vegetation classification and to assess the classification performance of multi-source data features. Finally, semantic 3D mesh models of vegetation were generated by projecting the 2D vegetation maps onto the 3D models. The results indicate that realistic 3D models can effectively distinguish vegetation types. Their combination with multispectral and LiDAR data provides a more comprehensive description of the topography and vegetation structures in mountainous areas. Compared to using a single data source, this approach achieves an increase in the overall accuracy (OA) of 2D classification by 4.28% to 11.29%. Concurrently, the OA of the 3D mapping based on realistic 3D models reached 92.06%, with a Kappa coefficient of 0.89. This approach can reflect the accurate, visualized, 3D distribution patterns of mountain vegetation and improve the accuracy of fine-scale vegetation information extraction. This study demonstrates the significant potential of 3D model-multisource data integration for natural resource monitoring and provides novel ideas and methods for fine-scale and 3D information extraction of regional vegetation.
ZHANG Jinhua , HU Zhongwen , ZHANG Yinghui , ZHANG Qian , WANG Jingzhe , WU Guofeng . Mapping mountain vegetation using realistic 3D models integrating optical images and light detection and ranging data[J]. Remote Sensing for Natural Resources, 2025 , 37(6) : 107 -117 . DOI: 10.6046/zrzyyg.2024288
表1 特征集描述Tab.1 Description of the feature set |
| 数据源 | 特征类型 | 特征参数 |
|---|---|---|
| 实景三维模型 | 几何特征 | 线性度、平面度、球形度、全方差、各向异性、曲率变化、特征熵、特征值总和、垂直度、粗糙度、体积密度、表面密度 |
| 纹理特征 | 均值、方差、能量、同质性、对比度、不相似性、相关性、熵 | |
| 多光谱 | 光谱波段 | 蓝、绿、红、红边、近红外、近红外-940 |
| 植被指数 | ARI1,MCARI,NDVI,NLI,RGRI | |
| LiDAR | 地形特征 | DSM,DEM,CHM,Slope,Aspect |
| 高度特征 | 累积高度百分位数(1%,10%,20%,30%,40%,50%,60%,70%,80%,90%,99%)、平均绝对偏差、冠层起伏率、变异系数、峰度、二次幂平均、偏斜度、方差 | |
| 多源数据融合 | 以上所有特征的组合 | |
表2 不同数据特征的分类精度对比Tab.2 Classification accuracy evaluation from different features |
| 数据 | 特征 | F1/% | OA/% | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 相思林 | 荔枝林 | 混合林 | 灌草丛 | 建筑 | 裸地 | 水体 | |||
| 实景三维模型 | 几何 | 75.29 | 87.68 | 71.95 | 86.08 | 90.37 | 86.8 | 98.59 | 85.28 |
| 纹理 | 86.18 | 80.33 | 76.53 | 81.76 | 88.33 | 86.61 | 98.43 | 85.46 | |
| 几何+纹理 | 92.19 | 90.80 | 89.25 | 91.97 | 93.51 | 93.39 | 99.65 | 92.97 | |
| 多光谱 | 波段 | 88.23 | 78.25 | 71.29 | 88.99 | 90.73 | 91.71 | 96.42 | 86.60 |
| 指数 | 74.80 | 72.57 | 64.47 | 83.83 | 81.98 | 87.84 | 94.3 | 80.07 | |
| 波段+指数 | 89.40 | 80.11 | 73.94 | 90.80 | 93.31 | 93.86 | 97.39 | 88.46 | |
| LiDAR | 地形 | 86.78 | 96.38 | 82.86 | 92.70 | 93.29 | 91.39 | 97.24 | 91.53 |
| 高度 | 90.36 | 92.98 | 81.10 | 88.77 | 90.17 | 88.02 | 89.59 | 88.81 | |
| 地形+高度 | 94.15 | 97.90 | 90.60 | 96.09 | 95.83 | 95.28 | 98.47 | 95.47 | |
| 多源数据融合 | 所有特征 | 99.51 | 99.90 | 99.3 | 99.85 | 99.84 | 99.86 | 99.99 | 99.75 |
表3 三维制图混淆矩阵Tab.3 Confusion matrix of the 3D mapping |
| 类别 | 相思林/m2 | 荔枝林/m2 | 混合林/m2 | 灌草丛/m2 | 建筑/m2 | 裸地/m2 | 水体/m2 | PA/% |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 相思林 | 7 589.17 | 3.22 | 887.19 | 0.67 | 7.37 | 5.96 | 0.00 | 89.35 |
| 荔枝林 | 0.57 | 2 695.00 | 116.16 | 3.09 | 96.51 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 92.57 |
| 混合林 | 273.48 | 18.97 | 10 865.33 | 134.58 | 110.48 | 42.96 | 0.00 | 94.93 |
| 灌草丛 | 3.79 | 3.29 | 187.89 | 1 504.19 | 27.87 | 11.43 | 0.00 | 86.52 |
| 建筑 | 0.72 | 1.90 | 8.00 | 0.83 | 947.26 | 19.21 | 0.00 | 96.86 |
| 裸地 | 72.38 | 5.40 | 74.17 | 19.10 | 36.73 | 1 514.38 | 4.81 | 87.69 |
| 水体 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 19.14 | 359.28 | 94.94 |
| UA/% | 95.58 | 98.8 | 89.51 | 90.48 | 77.25 | 93.88 | 98.68 | — |
| OA/% | 92.06 | |||||||
| Kappa | 0.89 | |||||||
表4 不同植被类型的空间分布参数Tab.4 Spatial distribution parameters of different vegetation |
| 植被类型 | 平均海拔/m | 平均坡度/(°) | 二维面积/m2 | 二维面积占比/% | 三维面积/m2 | 三维面积占比/% | 三维面积/二维面积 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 相思林 | 51.34 | 25.26 | 84 658.3 | 19.04 | 349 930.5 | 28.79 | 4.13 |
| 荔枝林 | 7.68 | 15.32 | 12 452.8 | 2.80 | 17 616.1 | 1.45 | 1.41 |
| 混合林 | 42.55 | 25.73 | 320 953.0 | 72.18 | 803 781.6 | 66.14 | 2.50 |
| 灌草丛 | 7.97 | 20.10 | 26 605.3 | 5.98 | 43 982.0 | 3.62 | 1.65 |
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