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Regional Sustainability >

2024 , Vol. 5 >Issue 4: 100180

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsus.2024.100180

Full Length Article

Residents’ attitudes and behaviours on private green spaces in the suburban areas of Central European countries

  • Tamás HARDI , a, b, * ,
  • Ádám PÁTHY a, c ,
  • Andrea POZSGAI b
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  • aHungarian Research Network Centre for Economic and Regional Studies, Institute for Regional Studies West Hungarian Research Department, Györ, H-9022, Hungary
  • bDepartment of Regional Science and Rural Development, Albert Kázmér Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences of Széchenyi István University, Mosonmagyaróvár, H-9200, Hungary
  • cDepartment of Social Science and Sociology, Apáczai Csere János Faculty of Széchenyi István University, Györ, H-9022, Hungary
*E-mail address: (Tamás HARDI).

Received date: 2024-03-28

  Revised date: 2024-07-26

  Accepted date: 2024-11-20

  Online published: 2025-08-13

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Abstract

Green spaces in urban and suburban areas play a significant role in helping settlements adapt to climate change. The design, quantity, quality, and location of green spaces influence their ability to provide benefits to people and enhance the quality of life. Private green spaces, if adequately managed, can enhance the environmental quality. This study, based on a questionnaire survey and the Motivation/Attitude-Driven Behaviour (MADB) model, investigated how the attitudes and behaviours of residents shape private green spaces in 12 settlements of the 4 city regions (Cluj region, Nitra region, Kecskemét region, and Györ region) in 3 Central European countries (Hungary, Slovakia, and Romania). The results showed that beautiful natural environment, abundance of green spaces, beautiful settlement and streetscape, and village atmosphere were mentioned most often, along with good quality of life, with a mention rate of over 70.00% in the four city regions. Convenience also played a significant role in the management of green spaces, showing that convenience factors (less work, less waste, and cheaper management) more important for those who live in settlements nearer to the cities. The importance of biodiversity and ecology was positively correlated with socio-economic status such as education and financial situation. However, the importance of the utility of green spaces was less prevalent among original villagers and settlers. Moreover, we found that the percentage of green spaces of settlers is slightly higher than that of original villagers. The results of factor analysis revealed that socio-economic status can influence respondents’ attitudes towards green spaces. It suggests to increase ecological awareness of residents, especially for new settlers, and promote good management techniques for green spaces. This study can improve the awareness of urban planners about the importance of green spaces in suburban areas.

Key words： Green spaces; Suburban area; Motivation/Attitude-Driven Behaviour (MADB) model; Hungary; Slovakia; Romania

Cite this article

Tamás HARDI , Ádám PÁTHY , Andrea POZSGAI . Residents’ attitudes and behaviours on private green spaces in the suburban areas of Central European countries[J]. Regional Sustainability, 2024 , 5(4) : 100180 . DOI: 10.1016/j.regsus.2024.100180

1. Introduction

The focuses of green spaces in urban areas are increasing (Hu et al., 2021). The design, quantity, quality, and location of green spaces in urban and suburban areas significantly impact human settlements’ ability to adapt to climate change (EEA, 2016; UN-DESAPD, 2019). The term ‘green infrastructure’ refers to the increasing benefits that green spaces bring to local people (Lian et al., 2022). Parks, private green spaces, green roofs, and green walls not only make our living spaces more pleasant and beautiful and our lives more peaceful and healthier, but also help to improve air quality, help reuse rainwater, regulate microclimate, evaporate heat, and reduce energy use for cooling and heating (Matthews et al., 2015). The extent of green spaces influences their functional performance. Several studies have shown that larger and contiguous green spaces are more effective in mitigating the urban heat island phenomenon and reducing temperatures in larger urban areas (Aram et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2019). They also have essential ecological functions, providing habitats and green corridors for animal species. If planted with appropriate plant species and forming interconnected networks (green belts), they can establish advanced urban biocenoses (Semeraro et al., 2021). The role of private green spaces of settlements is debated, with some authors arguing that they are not substitutes for public green spaces (Mahmoudi Farahani et al., 2018). While this is true, in suburban areas, where other options for developing green spaces are limited, these private green spaces should be taken into account (Cameron et al., 2012). Additionally, some scholars found an increasing role of private green spaces as green and smart technology development (Gangopadhyay and Balooni, 2012; Hlaváček et al., 2019).
Typically, most studies focus on the green infrastructure of urban core areas, mainly on public green spaces (Chang et al., 2017; De Sousa Silva et al., 2018; Lian and Feng, 2022). Green spaces include private green spaces and public green spaces, which have important ecological functions. The need for these green spaces is generally recognized, and the development of green (or blue) spaces in urban areas is promoted (Csomós et al., 2020). When studying green spaces, more attention should be given to suburban areas impacted by urban sprawl where rapid urban expansion often negatively transforms landscapes and green spaces (Siedentop and Fina, 2012; Bürgi et al., 2017). Public green spaces are significantly fewer in suburban areas compared to central cities. However, the most suburban areas are composed of garden houses, resulting in a larger total extent of green spaces than in inner cities (Săgeată et al., 2023). Although private green spaces are rarely open to the community, they still provide a wide range of services if adequately managed, such as shaping neighbourhood microclimate, filtering air pollution, and facilitating rainwater infiltration.
The spatial pattern of new built-up areas could be significant at two spatial levels. At the residential level, the proportion of green spaces and impervious surfaces is important. Additionally, the quality of green spaces is important (Zhou et al., 2022) and quantity is also a qualitative criterion. Green spaces must reach a critical volume to fulfil its ecological and rainwater management function. At the second spatial level, the settlement level must be considered (Aram et al., 2019). At this level, the proportion of green spaces is significant, which can form a green ecological corridor or a green belt. This is why urban planning and land use planning play a vital role in developing green spaces (Martínez-Sastre et al., 2017; Lennert et al., 2020). In suburban private green spaces, various management practices exist. Darly et al. (2021) found different management practices in traditional village gardens, hobby orchards, and ornamental gardens.
Our research areas are located in Cluj, Györ, Kecskemét, and Nitra of Central Europe. Typically, the residential areas of villages are transformed into suburban areas with the large of new residential areas adjacent to old ones. This study examined the roles of private green spaces in suburban areas, compared the attitudes and behaviours of original villagers and settlers towards to green spaces, and explained how settlers are altering settlement’s green spaces. This article can provide a basis for decision-making in the process of urban and regional development.

2. Literature review

2.1. Suburbanisation and local green spaces

A substantial environmental impact of suburbanisation is the conversion of new and previously undeveloped land. Urban and suburban areas are expanding into natural, semi-natural, or agricultural areas (Kahn, 2000; Johnson, 2001; Antrop, 2005). This process creates new residential, industrial, or service areas, with the accompanying infrastructures also occupying large areas (Hardi, 2022). Previously, as people moved in, traditional rural areas became denser (Ilbery, 2014), resulting in smaller residential plots per capita (Hall, 2010). This transformation has a significant impact on the environment and landscape.
The number of green spaces is decreasing, with the increasing proportion of built-up areas to green spaces (Slaev and Nedovic-Budic, 2016). This trend is evident in new developments. However, in rural village areas, old, large, and traditional residential areas are subdivided into smaller ones, further reducing the proportion of green spaces (Li et al., 2022).
As the use of gardens changed, people are planting more ornamental plants that are not native to the region. There is a growing trend of introducing alien and exotic species. Some of these species may be invasive and can easily spread outside of garden due to improper management (Csontos et al., 2020). New residential areas are often built near natural and semi-natural areas, facilitating the rapid spread of invasive species along waterfronts and roads.
The extent and proportion of impervious surfaces are increasing (Gardi, 2017; Hardi, 2022). Artificially impervious surfaces prevent rainwater from infiltrating the soil and facilitate rapid run-off. While this can prevent mud in residential areas, stormwater that collects and runs off instead of infiltrating the ground can cause significant damage (Forman and Wilson, 1995; Forman, 2008; Byrne et al., 2015). This stormwater typically strains the public sewer system, often overloading it (Hlaváček et al., 2019). When rainwater mixes with wastewater, it adds to the workload of wastewater treatment facilities. Heavy rainfall is becoming more frequent due to climate change, therefore the large areas of impervious surfaces can directly cause flash floods.
Furthermore, this rainwater does not infiltrate the soil, reducing groundwater recharge and the amount of water available for evaporation. The high proportion of run off contributes to drying the microclimate and exacerbating the urban heat island phenomenon. In addition to new buildings, there are increasing numbers of paved and concrete surfaces, especially for car storage (Warhurst et al., 2014). As the size of the new residential plots decreases, the proportion of impervious surfaces increases, and the proportion of impervious surface of suburban detached residential plots is up to 40.00%-50.00%.
Landscape fragmentation is increasing (Kahn, 2000). The extent of existing green patches (ecological corridors) and habitats is decreasing, and the connections between patches are being disrupted. Green spaces with lower connectivity negatively impact the distribution and diversity of fauna (Lagucki et al., 2017; Graffigna et al., 2023). Woody vegetation in gardens will decrease and non-native species will increase. Fewer trees will result in the loss of continuous canopy groups and the increase of large open areas. With the enhancement of urban functions of residential areas, the proportion of these areas is also increasing. Infrastructures and buildings further exacerbate this fragmentation.

2.2. Population’s motivations, attitudes, and behaviours in the management of green spaces

Relationship among emotion, motivation, attitude, and behaviour can be formally described by the Motivation/Attitude-Driven Behaviour (MADB) model (Wang, 2007). In the MADB model, motivation, triggered by an emotion or desire, is a willingness or desire spurred by an emotion or external stimulus to pursue a goal or initiate an action. Attitudes that determine behaviours are based on a binary choice of time, resources, and energy.
Firstly, residents own and manage most of green spaces in a neighbourhood. These green spaces include gardens, front gardens, courtyards, hedges, and green roofs of residential areas. Therefore, residents’ attitude towards maintaining green spaces can be critical. Secondly, in addition to private green spaces, residents typically look after the section of street in front of their house, which is officially considered public green space, up to 0.01 km2 per capita. Besides its ecological functions, this maintenance can also enhance village landscape, thereby increasing property values, and can help manage ditches to facilitate the drainage and storage of rainwater. Thirdly, public expectations significantly influence how the municipality manages and develops green spaces in public areas. Residents’ management of their own green spaces and their expectations of community green spaces can be influenced by various factors such as traditions, past residence, lifestyle, income, knowledge of green spaces, and current fashion trends. Internal and external factors can affect the shaping of green spaces on residential areas (Ambrey et al., 2017).
It is rare nowadays to see residents growing fruit and vegetables in their garden for basic living needs. However, some people insist on home-grown food as a family property or for other reasons (Russo et al., 2017). Residents, especially older ones, tend their gardens and grow fruit and vegetables even if it is of no economic importance to them. They continue this activity as part of the village way of life. For younger people, especially those who have moved from city, take on the extra work and financial burden of gardening out of health consciousness, aiming to provide healthier food for the family by growing their own produce. Of course, the success of this depends not only on the environment, but also on gardening skills and the time spent.
People moving out of city usually regard the presence of greenery as a positive reason for moving, and some of them enjoy spending time gardening. Others prefer to avoid gardening or may not have time to do so due to their work schedules or commute. This often means that they do not even tolerate deciduous trees or ‘litter’ plants in their residential areas. Sometimes, they even cut down trees in front of their house to park their cars. Income conditions also play a role, as those on higher incomes can afford to maintain a spectacular garden using automated equipment or to employ a gardener. Neighbourhood effects also influence residents’ behaviours of maintaining green spaces. In some neighbourhoods, there are few plants; however, in other neighbourhoods, there is competition among dwellers in cultivating spectacular gardens.
Private green spaces are diverse in suburban areas. Along the urban-rural gradient, suburban areas show the highest biodiversity due to the diversity of gardens (Forman and Wilson, 1995; Forman, 2008). The suburban landscapes are diverse and different from traditional rural green spaces.

3. Materials nd methods

3.1. Study area

This study was conducted in four cities in the three Central European countries. The two cities (Györ and Kecskemét) are located in Hungary, one (Nitra) in Slovakia, and one (Cluj) in Romania (Fig. 1). Non-metropolitan and non-capital urban areas in these post-socialist countries began experiencing suburbanisation in the 2000s (Angel et al., 2011; Grigorescu et al., 2012; Taubenböck et al., 2019; Hardi et al., 2020). Previously, this phenomenon was observed only around the capital cities but not in other cities. In the 1990s, housing construction was limited due to capital constraints and economic difficulties. However, after the turn of the millennium, the pace of new construction accelerated, leading more urban residents moving to suburban areas to build new homes (Dumitrache et al., 2016; Săgeată et al., 2023).
Fig. 1. Overview of the study area. The projection of this map is HD72/EOV (EPSG: 23700).
To ensure comparability, we defined a zone of 20 km around each city as a ‘city region’ for this study. Three sample settlements were selected for each city (Table 1). The selection criterion was that settlements should represent different zones within city region, effectively placing them along an urban-rural gradient. Of the three sample settlements, the one closest to the city has been strongly affected by suburbanization. The second sample settlement is characterised by significant growth, with the development of new suburban areas dominated by detached houses. In contrast, the third sample settlement shows population growth but lacks new neighbourhoods. Traditional villages were typically found in the three sample settlements, or new buildings were built.
Table 1 Basic characteristics of the study area.
Country Region Population (persons) Percentage of impervious surface (%) Residential density
(personskm2)
Impervious surface of 16.00%-50.00% Impervious surface of 50.00%-100.00%
2001 2011 2018 2006 2012 2018 2006 2012 2018 2011 2018
Romania City Cluj 318,056 308,026 323,675 10.49 11.60 8.41 7.87 8.30 13.27 8624 8333
City region Cluj region 185,671 192,791 213,223 1.15 1.40 1.28 0.23 0.30 0.89 3603 3151
Sample settlement Baciu 8064 9371 11,526 1.66 1.80 1.74 0.21 0.20 1.26 5246 4366
Chinteni 2831 2929 3294 0.72 0.80 0.98 0.02 0.00 0.34 3907 2573
Aiton 1392 1154 1019 0.69 0.70 1.04 0.00 0.00 0.18 3421 1832
Slovakia City Nitra 86,656 79,202 76,655 18.85 22.80 13.30 2.37 2.70 11.24 3056 3081
City region Nitra region 219,878 220,162 222,159 5.29 5.60 3.91 0.14 0.20 1.77 1922 1950
Sample settlement Nitrianske Hrnčiarovce 1746 1914 2089 9.59 11.80 8.74 0.07 0.10 3.25 1655 1791
Lapáš 1494 1645 2659 7.59 10.49 7.92 0.16 0.14 4.68 1375 1875
Jelšovce 950 988 1000 5.92 6.10 4.26 0.05 0.10 1.69 1518 1587
Hungary City Kecskemét 107,708 111,150 110,687 8.06 8.36 5.86 3.03 3.37 6.09 2930 2863
City region Kecskemét region 145,647 140,751 139,920 1.84 1.90 1.56 0.42 0.44 1.12 2436 2114
Sample settlement Ballószög 2666 3215 3652 3.31 3.45 2.18 0.22 0.23 1.34 2524 3000
Kerekegyháza 5994 6263 6563 3.06 3.08 2.56 0.23 0.24 1.43 2313 2016
Fülöpszállás 2456 2191 2047 1.07 1.10 1.10 0.03 0.04 0.29 2088 1605
City Györ 129,411 129,519 132,038 10.30 10.90 11.88 9.52 10.70 12.59 3410 3074
City region Györ region 146,126 149,396 158,148 3.00 3.10 3.20 0.83 0.90 1.55 1863 1681
Sample settlement Györújfalu 1096 1565 2201 6.89 7.70 7.35 2.58 3.10 4.54 1381 2524
Györzámoly 1560 2336 3129 2.26 2.30 2.86 1.29 1.30 1.71 1595 2520
Börcs 1005 1236 1320 3.89 3.90 4.42 1.29 1.30 1.94 1561 1670

Note: City region means a 20 km radius zone around each city.

In terms of the four cities, Cluj stands out in population, area, and population density (Table 1). Nonetheless, all four cities are officially classified as second-tier cities. Cluj is located on a hilly area with high relief energy, Nitra is situated on a transition zone between mountains and lowlands, Kecskemét features a typical lowland landscape, and Györ is located on the edge of both hilly and lowland areas.
The population of Nitra, Kecskemét, and Györ was less than the population of Cluj. The extent of built-up areas was estimated using the imperviousness maps of the European Union’s Earth observation programme. We assessed the extent of impervious surface over different periods and calculated residential density, by dividing the population by the impervious coverage area. The results showed that Cluj has the highest residential density, with its residential density being twice higher than the other three cities (Nitra, Kecskemét, and Györ), and the residential density of Cluj region is more than those of other three city regions (Nitra region, Kecskemét region, and Györ region).
There was a steady decrease in residential density of the three cities (Cluj, Kecskemét, and Györ) between 2011 and 2018. This trend indicated that an increase in impervious coverage area is outpacing the population growth in all cities (except for Nitra).
At the same time, the density of built-up structures in the residential areas is rapidly increasing. New residential areas are smaller than previous areas, resulting in less green spaces. Consequently, the percentage of green spaces is rapidly decreasing, and the distribution is becoming more scattered.
To illustrate the densification of residential areas, we conducted a Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis on one sample settlement (Györzámoly). Two neighbourhoods were selected to describe the spatial changes of permeable and impervious surfaces in Györzámoly (Figs. 2 and 3). The first neighbourhood was a traditional neighbourhood, which existed before the increase immigration and originally consisted of traditional villages. The neighbourhood, developed between 2000 and 2023, was a newly built neighbourhood on former agricultural land. We digitized the conditions of the selected two neighbourhoods in 1965, 2000, and 2023 using Quantum Geographic Information System (QGIS) software, distinguishing between permeable and impervious surfaces.
Fig. 2. Distribution of permeable and impervious surfaces in the first neighbourhood of Györzámoly in 1965 (a), 2000 (b), and 2023 (c).
Fig. 3. Distribution of permeable and impervious surfaces in the second neighbourhood of Györzámoly in 2023.
The total area of the first neighbourhood was 0.225 km2 in 2023. In 1965, 3.99% of the first neighbourhood was covered by impervious surfaces, and this value increased to 17.02% in 2000 and 22.38% in 2023. The second neighbourhood covered 0.136 km2 in 2023, with impervious surfaces of 48.51%. The decreasing green spaces limit gardening possibilities, particularly in newly built neighbourhood.

3.2. Analysis methods

In designing the questionnaire, we adhered to the logical structure of the MADB model. To examine the motivational base, we analysed the factors influencing the decision of those who moved to the settlements after 2000. A key question was how the environment and green spaces influenced these decisions. Our examination of motivations was limited to a descriptive analysis. We assessed attitudes by exploring respondents’ needs regarding green spaces and analysing the importance of certain characteristics of green spaces. Questions with multiple items analysed using consistent techniques were effective, for examining a wide range of characteristics and organizing attitudes into thematic structures. We conducted an exploratory factor analysis using the maximum likelihood method and created complex indicators for attitude types based on the variables belonging to each factor. We examined differences between settlements and city regions with the help of an independence test. Additionally, we categorised green spaces of groups with different attitudes based on the prevalence of various plant types and cultivation techniques in the gardens. We investigated the effects of socio-economic and socio-demographic status on attitudes of respondents using binomial logistic regression models. Respondents’ behaviours were investigated through specific ways of creating and using green spaces. This examination also involved a comparative analysis exploring different motives and potential differences between original villagers and settlers.

3.3. Questionnaire survey

The questionnaire survey was conducted from March to October in 2022, using face-to-face interviews. To ensure the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, we conducted a workshop involving colleagues from different fields participating in the research. Technical and content validation was achieved through a pilot survey with 20 participants and 3 cognitive interviews. Cronbach’s alpha test was used to examine the consistency of the multi-item questions belonging to each topic group.
The sample was selected to represent the different zones of the four city regions. The sampling process involved two steps. Firstly, the settlements were chosen from the four city regions, following the principle that one settlement chosen to be surveyed should fall within the inner, transitional, and outer zones of each city region. The sample was independent of the number of population or households in the surveyed settlements and each settlement was to be surveyed with an equal number of households (n=50). The questionnaire of each settlement was administered proportionally to the number of households. Thus, we did a two-step sampling allowing an adequate representation of different types of residential areas in settlements experiencing spatial segregation alongside suburbanisation. The final sample consisted of 600 respondents, with 150 respondents successfully collected from each city region. Given that our primary units of analysis were households, and our analysis relies on the original selection principle of equal number of households per city region, no weighting was required.
For this study, exposure to suburbanisation processes was essential, therefore, the date of moving to settlement was a key variable in the grouping. Respondents who were not born in the surveyed settlements accounted for 50.60% of the total respondents. However, only those who moved to the settlements after 2000 were considered to be involved in suburbanisation (treated as settlers), representing 39.50% of the total respondents. Table 2 details the migration patterns by settlements and zones.
Table 2 Migration patterns of settlers in the four city regions.
City region Settlement Percentage of settlers always living here (%) Percentage of settlers moving to settlements (%) Percentage of settlers moving from the centre of the city (%)
Anytime After 2000
Cluj region Baciu 64.60 35.40 14. 00 64.70
Chinteni 56.30 43.80 37.30 81.00
Aiton 31.30 68.80 59.20 60.50
Total 50.70 49.30 36.70 67.60
Györ region Györújfalu 30.00 70.00 58.00 80.00
Györzámoly 44.00 56.00 48.00 81.50
Börcs 50.00 50.00 46.00 88.00
Total 41.30 58.70 50.70 82.80
Kecskemét region Ballószög 38.00 62.00 33.00 73.30
Kerekegyháza 62.00 38.00 20.00 27.80
Fülöpszállás 52.00 48.00 32.00 16.70
Total 50.70 49.30 32.00 43.10
Nitra region Nitrianske Hrnčiarovce 61.00 38.00 34.00 70.50
Lapáš 42.90 57.10 50.00 65.60
Jelšovce 61.70 38.30 29.80 50.00
Total 54.90 45.10 38.60 62.70
Inner zone 48.50 51.50 37.50 73.70
Transitional zone 51.00 49.00 39.10 66.30
Outer zone 48.70 51.30 41.80 55.00
Total zone 49.40 50.60 39.50 65.00
While there was no significant difference among the four city regions in the overall percentage of settlers, Györ region exhibited a more pronounced percentage of settlers, as well as a notable percentage of settlers moving from the centre of city region. There were no differences in the overall percentage of the three zones, indicating that the intensity of the moving does not depend on the distance from the centre of the city.
The differences in socio-economic status between original villagers and settlers were clearly evident. The percentage of settler households with at least one person holding a higher education degree (60.50%) was twice as that of original villagers (32.60%). A similar difference was observed in terms of financial situation of households. Specifically, 56.70% of settlers reported that they had higher income, whereas only 32.60% of original villagers had higher income. These trends mentioned were consistent across the four city regions, though the degree of contrast varied. Notably, the socio-economic status of respondents was generally lower in Kecskemét region and Cluj region. Households with high socio-economic status were defined as those having at least one person with tertiary education, higher income, and having one car. The percentage of households with high socio-economic status in each city region was illustrated in Figure 4.
Fig. 4. Percentage of households with high socio-economic status in the four city regions.

4. Results

4.1. Migration motivation of respondents

In order to examine the migration motivation of respondents, we distinguished 12 factors, of which 4 factors (beautiful natural environment, abundance of green spaces, beautiful settlement and streetscape, and village atmosphere) were considered to some extent related to natural environment and green spaces (Fig. 5). When examining the factors that play an important role in the choice of a settlement, we generally found that the factors related to the environment are emphasized. Four factors indicated above were mentioned most often, along with good quality of life, with a mention rate of over 70.00% in the four city regions.
Fig. 5. Percentage of factors driving for moving to a settlement in the four city regions.
There were no characteristic differences among the four city regions. We also asked about the importance of a variety of factors in selecting settlements. The highest percentage of respondents considered access to private green spaces and public gardens to be very important in choosing a settlement. However, there was a significant difference in the perception of these two factors among the four city regions. In Györ region and Nitra region, the vast majority of respondents valued particular importance to having private green spaces, while in the other two city regions (Cluj region and Kecskemét region), only about half of respondents did.

4.2. Main characteristics of each city region

The average size of residential plot in each city region was significantly different. Cluj region was characterised by a notably larger residential plot (1985.00 m2) than the average residential plot (1400.00 m2) of the four city regions, whereas the average residential plots of Nitra region and Györ region are less than 1200.00 m2. The area differences of original villagers and settlers were not significant overall, however, in Romania that was reversed, with settlers having significantly larger living area. In settlements experiencing classical trend of suburbanisation, land for new building was increasingly limited due to faster population growth, and the size differences were more pronounced. Differences in the building-plot percentage also varied accordingly. The percentage of green spaces was slightly above 50.00% for the total zones, showing an increasing percentage in settlements further from the city region (Fig. 6). Moreover, there were significant differences in the percentage of green spaces of original villagers and settlers in different zones of the four city regions.
Fig. 6. Percentage of green spaces of original villagers and settlers in different zones of the four city regions.

4.3. Attitudes and behaviours of respondents towards green spaces

This study focused on the assumptions that if there are significant differences between original villagers and settlers in how they view, use, and manage their green spaces. To this end, we examined attitudes related to the creation and management of green spaces and the importance and usefulness attributed to the different functions of green spaces. Additionally, we assessed the functions or characteristics of green spaces of the examined households, including the percentage of green spaces, vegetable garden activities, and plant types.
This study used the maximum likelihood factor analysis to obtain the attitudes and behaviours of respondents towards their own green spaces. We applied a dichotomous set of 19 items to examine the attitudes and behaviours of respondents towards their own green spaces. Of the 19 items, 17 items were classified into 7 factors, from which we used 6 factors for this study. The rotated factor scores are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Factor scores of attitudes and behaviours of respondents towards green spaces.
Function or characteristic of garden Biodiversity Convenience Ecology Utility Indigenous species Climate
Providing habitat for birds 0.570
Providing habitat for insects 0.756
Providing habitat for other animals 0.703
Being maintained with little work 0.597
Being maintained inexpensively 0.668
Does not generate much waste 0.620
Increasing green areas 0.670
Contributing to ecological corridors 0.751
Useful from a market perspective 0.881
Useful for providing food for the household 0.419
Containing indigenous species 0.489
Does not contain invasive species 0.680
Providing shade 0.626
Regulating microclimate 0.481
Having big trees 0.416
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin=0.704; Significance of Bartlett’s test of sphericity=0.000
An important factor influencing respondents’ management of green spaces was convenience, including minimal work, low-cost maintenance, and less waste from the garden. Respondents generally believed that convenience is very important, which is rarely affected by the socio-economic status of households. However, the percentage of respondents who consider convenience is important decreased with increasing distance from the city. Although the extent of this variation differed among the four city regions, it followed a similar trend across all city regions. Notably, there was no significant difference between original villagers and settlers in their attitudes towards convenience (Table 4). Furthermore, there was no correlation between the importance placed on convenience and the species of plants found in green spaces.
Table 4 Percentage of respondents considering convenience important in the four city regions.
Zone Cluj region Györ region Kecskemét region Nitra region
Settlement Percentage (%) Settlement Percentage (%) Settlement Percentage (%) Settlement Percentage (%)
Inner zone Baciu 56.00 Györújfalu 90.00 Ballószög 94.00 Nitrianske Hrnčiarovce 96.00
Transitional zone Chinteni 49.00 Györzámoly 88.00 Kerekegyháza 86.00 Lapáš 93.60
Outer zone Aiton 45.10 Börcs 86.00 Fülöpszállás 54.00 Jelšsovce 87.50
Chi2 significance=0.000
The different dimensions of awareness can be captured through four factors: biodiversity, ecology, indigenous species, and climate. Clear trends can be identified for the awareness of biodiversity and ecology. The importance of biodiversity, specifically the importance of having a garden as a habitat for different animal species, was positively correlated with socio-economic status. The increasing of private green spaces contributed to ecological corridors. This indicated that the importance of ecology is more appreciated as one moves towards the outer zone of city region.
In terms of how the different dimensions of awareness determine the management of green spaces, the presence of plant species and cultivation practices can be examined among respondents who consider awareness important (Table 5).
Table 5 Influence of plants or cultivation types on awareness on the management of green spaces.
Plant or cultivation type Biodiversity Ecology Indigenous species Climate
Lawn +
Herbaceous plant + + +
Kitchen garden + +
Large tree - +
Pine - - ++
Thuja -
Vine +
Shrub ++ ++ +
Rose + -
Arbor ++ ++ +
Uncultivated soil ++ - - ++ ++
Gravel - - ++

Note: + means positive impact; - means negative impact. One mark means significant impact below 10.00% and two marks mean significant impact over 10.00%.

The results of factor analysis revealed that socio-economic status can influence respondents’ attitude towards the utility of green spaces, which significantly distinguishes between original villagers and settlers, as well as among settlements in different zones. The importance of utility was less prevalent among original villagers and settlers. Additionally, as socio-economic status increased, the importance of utility decreased. The average age of household had a positive effect on the utility of green spaces (Table 6).
Table 6 Logistic regression results for the driving factors of utility of green spaces.
Factor Wald Significance Exp(B)
Moved to settlement after 2000 18.589 0.000 0.416
Outer zone 35.441 0.000 -
Transitional zone 1.361 0.243 0.762
Inner zone 30.699 0.000 0.277
Household member with a tertiary degree 4.465 0.035 0.544
Socio-economic status 6.517 0.043 0.734
Average age of household 1.788 0.281 1.014
Constant 8.259 0.000 3.171
Nagelkerke R=0.159

Note: Exp(B) is the odds ratio of predictors, indicating the predicted change in odds for a unit increase in the predictor. - means no value.

The perception of utility can also characterize how respondents manage their own green spaces. There were significant differences among respondents in the perception of utility of presence of plant or cultivation type. Fruit tree, kitchen garden, shrub, vine, and arbour, were more likely to be found on green spaces for respondents who consider utility is important (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Percentage of the perception of utility of the plants or cultivation types in green spaces.

4.4. Differences in green spaces between original villagers and settlers

We can well distinguish the green space of original villagers and settlers according to the type of plants they grow. In general, species richness and the number of quantifiable plants were smaller in the green space of settlers. Of the plant types studied, the four types of trees (large trees, fruit trees, ornamental trees, and pines) were significantly more abundant in the green spaces of original villagers. The same was true for kitchen gardens, which are planted by two-thirds of the original villagers’ households, compared to only 50.00% of settlers.
The percentage of green spaces of settlers was slightly higher than that of original villagers. However, lawns were much prevalent among settlers, occupying an average of 23.00% of green spaces, compared to only 15.00% of original villagers. A similar pattern was observed for areas covered with gravel and fallow lands, both of which were significantly more common among settlers (Fig. 8). The differences were also evident in terms of the number of plants, and the average number of trees in original villagers’ green spaces was almost twice that in settlers’ green spaces.
Fig. 8. Differences in plants or cultivation types between original villagers and settlers.

5. Discussion

The effects of suburbanisation highlight that the primary motivation for settlers is the opportunity to have their own green spaces. However, the high demand for real estate is leading to increasingly dense settlements, reducing the percentage of green space available (Repaská et al., 2017). Smaller plot sizes for new detached houses limit the scope and management of green spaces, which affects self-provisioning food production. Svobodová et al. (2021) reported that only 10.00% of population in Western Europe and 35.00%-60.00% of population in post-socialist countries engage in self-provisioning food production, with considerable variation depending on settlement types and national habits. However, there has been a radical change in this trend between 2005 and 2020. According to our results, food production is becoming less important, but it illustrates the difference of attitudes of respondents. Food production and the utility of green spaces are more important for the older people than for the younger people. As Darly et al. (2021) concluded that, food production depends on area size, with larger area being more prevalent. We found vegetable garden in the outer zone of city regions, where the area of vegetable gardens is larger and generally inhabited by less affluent residents, for whom production may be economically important. This study also proved that suburbanisation has a zonality. Inner zone is highly urbanised, while the outer zone is populated by more remote rural residents rather than urban dwellers.
Lifestyle changes have also influenced the amount of time spent on the maintenance of green spaces. Warhurst et al. (2014) found that commuters, who spend most of their time in another settlement, often have limited time for gardening, and growing vegetables and fruits is not economical. This is true both for settlers and original villagers. Those who invest more energy and money in their green spaces do it as a hobby or are holistically or ecologically committed to maintaining a sophisticated green space (Gangopadhyay and Balooni, 2012). However, the percentage of such committed individuals is relatively small.
Byrne et al. (2015) observed that the significance of large trees is better acknowledged by older and more eco-conscious individuals, yet this responsibility is often relegated to public green spaces. Our study supported the findings of Byrne et al. (2015) but added that many respondents neglect large trees in their green spaces, which are crucial for suburban green spaces. Despite awareness of ecological concepts like the importance of ecological corridors and interconnected green spaces, respondents do not prioritize woody vegetation. Tree ownership is more common among older respondents and original villagers, while settlers often view trees mainly as a nuisance due to falling leaves. Maintenance of trees and creation of ecological corridors are perceived as municipal responsibilities.
Chang et al. (2017) underlined the importance of private green spaces and calculated the value of ecosystem services provided by public green spaces. Moreover, beyond a threshold, maintenance costs exceed the value of ecosystem services. Therefore, it is not possible to expect only the municipality to maintain the ecologically valuable of green spaces in suburban areas, but residents must take an active role in this. Mahmoudi Farahani et al. (2018) emphasised that public green spaces and private green spaces were not interchangeable, but they described this primarily from a social welfare perspective. In poorer neighbourhoods, private green spaces are smaller and thus, the role of public green spaces is greater. However, from an ecological perspective, both public green spaces and private green spaces play a critical role. We emphasised the need to enhance green spaces in suburban areas and adapt to climate change.
There is an ambivalence of respondents regarding habitat provision. While respondents see habitat provision value in providing habitat for birds, they place less importance on providing habitat for insect, which are vital for pollination. Forman (2008), Lagucki (2017), and Graffigna et al. (2023) found that pollinator habitats and diversity are declining in suburban areas, despite high plant diversity. Residents prefer to support birds rather than insects in their gardens.
In summary, planners need to consider diverse population attitudes when designing green spaces (Byrne et al., 2015; Matthews, 2015; Ambrey et al., 2017). Unfortunately, acceptance of this approach remains limited in the examined countries, even among municipal leaders. Effective planning methodologies are essential for suburban areas to prepare for climate change.

6. Conclusions

The findings indicated a gap in both attitudes and behaviours regarding the effective management of green spaces. It’s important to recognize the attitudes and behaviours towards green spaces, which is different between original villagers and settlers. Many residents perceived their new home as an isolated sanctuary, with fences and hedges symbolizing separation rather than integration into the broader ecosystem.
Our research also revealed that people who relocate from the cities to suburban areas often possess strong emotional connection to green spaces. It is very important for many people to have a healthy environment. Once settled, these settlers are driven to create and maintain green spaces, viewing the well-kept green spaces and a healthy environment as essential.
In suburban areas, engaging the population in greening efforts is crucial due to the limited availability of public green spaces. Private green spaces can provide ecological services such as ecological corridor, microclimate regulation, enhancement of townscape aesthetics, and increasing biodiversity.
As a result, there is a need for targeted programs that consider differences in socio-economic status such as education and financial situation and aim to create appropriate green spaces in suburban areas. Education efforts to improve the ecological knowledge of population are also necessary. Shifting from emotion-driven to knowledge-driven attitudes towards green spaces poses a challenge but also an opportunity for substantial improvements in suburban environmental conditions.
While this study provides valuable insights, it also acknowledges limitations in capturing the full spectrum of attitudes and behaviours towards green spaces. Nevertheless, it offers a solid foundation for further research into the factors influencing green space management and the potential for enhancing suburban environments.

Authorship contribution statement

Tamás HARDI: conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, investigation, methodology, project administration, resources, software, supervision, validation, visualization, writing - original draft, and writing - review & editing; Ádám PÁTHY: data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, software, validation, visualization, and writing - original draft; and Andrea POZSGAI: methodology, software, visualization, and writing - original draft. All authors approved the manuscript.

Ethics statement

Ethics approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Hungarian Research Network Centre for Economic and Regional Studies. All participants provided their consent to participate in this study.

Declaration of conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This work was financially supported by the Hungarian National Research, Development and Innovation Fund (NKFI-6-K-128703).

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